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INTRODUCTION 
HOW THIS COURSE OF STUDY WORKS 
0.1 As the purpose of this Course is to equip the ordinary Christian with the ability to read and understand the Greek New Testament, the primary emphasis is upon learning to read Greek. There are English-into-Greek sentences provided for translation, to direct the attention of the student to how Greek handles specific grammatical situations; but the main emphasis is not upon translating from English into Greek (on the assumption that it is not really the aim of students to learn how to do this). Grammar is introduced and taught in this Course on an "explanation" basis — elements of grammar are explained which will enable the student to understand the sentences from the Greek New Testament that he is being given to work with. That is, you learn your grammar at the point where you will use it, and you then use it in the sentences given at the end of the Lesson in which you were introduced to it. 
0.2 There is much less emphasis in the Course upon learning vocabulary than is usual in a beginning Greek Course. There are two reasons for this: First of all, it is because there is no actual word-for-word correspondence between Greek and English, but most words have a number of meanings the choice of which to a considerable extent is context-determined. For a new student of Greek to learn a single word of English as representing a particular word of Greek can therefore be misleading. Rather, the meaning of each Greek word is given for its particular context in a passage, and then these words are used and re-used in slightly varying contexts, in order to lay a foundation for the understanding of the "area of meaning" of each word. The second reason is a firm conviction on my part that, as a student has only a given amount of time available for spending on Greek study, he is much better employed in spending it, not in learning vocabulary lists, but in actually reading and grappling with a slab of Greek text, with an open word-list/vocabulary alongside. He will of course find that many word-meanings will "stick" in his memory, and he should encourage this. These word meanings will be reinforced and expanded as he reads more and more widely in Greek as the Course progresses. 
0.3 This does not mean that learning vocabulary is unimportant but, rather, that words are better learnt in context than in isolation. Therefore make it your aim to master the meanings of words as you see them used — and the Assignments for each Lesson include making out Vocabulary Cards for the new words of that Lesson. By the time you complete the ten Lessons of the Beginner's Course you will have been introduced to the three hundred words which occur more than fifty times each in the Greek New Testament. These are listed in Appendix G of this book. It is very useful to go through this list at least once every week or so, and tick off in pencil those that have been learnt: this enables you to see for yourself how you are progressing. These three hundred words are referred to as "common New Testament words", and in the vocabulary that is listed for each of the Lessons of this book these common New Testament words are marked with an asterisk, *, to indicate that it is particularly worthwhile remembering them because of their frequency. 
0.4 The Beginner's Course is self-contained and complete: no additional books are required. When you are ready to begin reading the Greek New Testament, you will need a good edition, and an Analysis or Key. 
THESE ARE THE BASIC BOOKS YOU WILL NEED: 
The Greek New Testament (United Bible Societies, Third or Fourth Edition) 
Greek—English Dictionary of the New Testament (Ed. B.M. Newman, United Bible Societies) 
(It is preferable to use the edition which has these two combined in one volume.) 
An Analysis of the Greek New Testament (Zerwick and Grosvenor, Biblical Institute Press) 
Or A Linguistic Key to the Greek New Testament (Rienecker and Rogers, Zondervan) 
11 
12 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
THESE BOOKS ARE USEFUL: 
Biblical Greek (M. Zerwick, Biblical Institute Press) 
Reader's Greek—English Lexicon of the New Testament (S. Kubo, Andrew's University Press/ Zondervan) 
The Morphology of Biblical Greek (William D. Mounce, Zondervan) 
Greek—English Lexicon of the New Testament (Bauer, Arndt, Gingrich and Danker, University of Chicago Press) 
0.5 Remember that the aim of the Course is not really to train you in translating the Greek New Testament into English, but to enable you to understand the meaning of the New Testament in Greek. Therefore, do not concentrate on the task of translation as an end in itself, but use your translation work as a means of reaching your real goal, which is to understand what the text says in Greek, and what it means by what it says. This is your first step towards putting it into practice yourself, and teaching its meaning and message accurately to others. 
0.6 Paragraphs in the book which begin NOTE or IMPORTANT NOTE contain points which it is very important for readers to note; and paragraphs which begin RULE contain a point of grammar formulated as a Rule of the Greek language, which should then be learnt. 
0.7 NOTE: # indicates a cross-reference to a paragraph in this book: # followed by a number refers to the Lesson with that number in the Beginner's Course; # followed by a letter refers to that Appendix in the Reference section. Thus #1.46 refers to the paragraph with that number, which will be found in Lesson One; and #C1.21 refers to the paragraph in Appendix C with that number. // is placed between references to parallel passages in the Gospels. 
0.8 NOTE: When a new term is introduced and defined or explained, it is given in italics (see for example in #1.9 and #2.1). The meaning of the new term should be learnt at that point. 
0.9 IMPORTANT NOTE: Under no circumstances ever write an English translation above any of the Greek sentences in this book — this would restrict your later understanding to what you had learnt at the time that you wrote out that translation. (But you may of course photocopy or copy out the sentences you are working on, and put on that copy an interlinear rendering of the words, as an intermediate step while you are engaged in working out the meaning of those sentences.) 
ABBREVIATIONS 
These abbreviations are used in the grammatical notes at the end of each Lesson: 

<table>
<tr>
<td>
<table>
<tr>
 <td>A or acc </td>
 <td>accusative </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>act </td>
 <td>active </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>adj </td>
 <td>adjective </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>adv </td>
 <td>adverb </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>aor </td>
 <td>aorist </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>C or conjg </td>
 <td>conjugation </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>conj </td>
 <td>conjunction </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>D </td>
 <td>declension </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>D or dat </td>
 <td>dative </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>dep </td>
 <td>deponent </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>f or fem </td>
 <td>feminine </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>fut </td>
 <td>future </td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
<td>
<table>
<tr>
 <td>G or gen </td>
 <td>genitive </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>impf </td>
 <td>imperfect </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>impv </td>
 <td>imperative </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>indecl </td>
 <td>indeclinable </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>indic </td>
 <td>indicative </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>inf </td>
 <td>infinitive </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>L </td>
 <td>Lesson/Lengthened </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>m or masc </td>
 <td>masculine </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>mid </td>
 <td>middle </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>n or neut </td>
 <td>neuter </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>N or nom </td>
 <td>nominative </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>P or pl </td>
 <td>plural </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>pass </td>
 <td>passive </td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
<td>
<table>
<tr>
 <td>pf or perf </td>
 <td>perfect </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>pers </td>
 <td>person </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>plpf </td>
 <td>pluperfect </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>prep </td>
 <td>preposition </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>pres </td>
 <td>present </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>ptc </td>
 <td>participle </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>refl </td>
 <td>reflexive </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>S or sg </td>
 <td>singular </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>subj </td>
 <td>subject </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>subjv </td>
 <td>subjunctive </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>V or voc </td>
 <td>vocative </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>Ø </td>
 <td>zero morph </td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>

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STAGE ONE: BEGINNER'S GREEK COURSE 
LESSON ONE 
THE GREEK LANGUAGE 
1.1 SOME BACKGROUND INFORMATION ABOUT GREEK 
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1.11 Some hundreds of years before the time of Christ, the country now called Greece consisted of a number of separate city-states. The people of these states shared a common culture and a common language, though with some differences of dialect from one region to another. In the centuries before Christ's birth, Attic (the dialect of Athens) had become the main literary form of the language, and this is what is known now as "Classical Greek". Through the conquests of Alexander the Great, Greek then became the official language of most of the Middle East, and was used as the language of trade, learning, and administration throughout the whole of his Macedonian Empire. 

1.12 During this process, however, the literary form of Attic became broken down into a somewhat simpler and less rigid pattern of grammar, and it absorbed words and forms from other Greek dialects and also from other languages (including Latin). This colloquial form of Greek is known as "Hellenistic Greek", or koine ("common") Greek.2 In the First Century AD koine Greek was spoken and understood throughout Palestine and around the entire Mediterranean basin, as well as much further afield in the Roman Empire and beyond. At this time Rome ruled the civilized world, and Latin was the official language of government; but Greek continued as the common language of everyday activity and communication. It is illustrative of the situation at the time that the inscription on the Cross (see John 19:20) was written in Aramaic (the local language in Judea), Latin (the official language of government), and Greek (the common language that just about everyone could read). 
1.13 It is highly probable that Jesus gave much of his teaching in Greek, and we may well have in the Gospels a great deal of material that is not in fact a translation from Aramaic into Greek but a record of Christ's actual words in Greek.' Thus koine Greek naturally became the language in which the New Testament was written, as it was the ideal vehicle for enabling God's message to reach the greatest readership. Even the Epistle to the Hebrews was written in Greek, not Aramaic, and the Epistle to the Romans was written in Greek, not Latin. 
1.14 As a result of a law passed in Attica in 403 BC4, there came to be 24 letters in the alphabet of Athens, and thus of Classical, New Testament, and indeed modern Greek. In ancient times and across various dialects, there had been other letters representing the sounds of Greek speech. As pronunciation changed over the centuries, so did spelling. Three letters, koppa, sampi and digamma survive only as numbers.' The first two are variants of kappa ("k") and sigma ("s") respectively. Digamma was a "w" or "v" sound, which dropped out of Greek pronunciation but has left behind a few peculiarities in the words in which it used to occur — we look at these in later Lessons. 
1.15 The common form of writing used in the First Century is called UNCIAL, and this was replaced in the Ninth/Tenth Centuries by an alternative style called cursive or "running" writing.' The cursive style is used now for all printing and writing, whilst the uncial letters function (with slight variations) as capital letters. 
1.16 NOTE: In the standard printed editions of the Greek New Testament, capital letters are used for: 
(a) proper nouns (the names of people, places or things, like "Jesus", "Bethlehem", "Jordan"), 
(b) to mark the beginning of a paragraph, and 

(c) at the beginning of direct speech (that is, when the actual words which someone spoke are being quoted). 
Apart from these circumstances, a sentence does not begin with a capital. (Some editors of editions of the Greek New Testament may differ slightly from this convention, by using capitals for sub-paragraphs or not using them for direct speech.) We can see then that capitals are relatively infrequent in Greek. 
1.17 During the koine Greek period (330 BC to 330 AD), some of the sounds were pronounced differently at different times and places (compare similar differences in the pronunciation of English today in various parts of the world). Thus there is a degree of uncertainty about the way to pronounce some letters, especially the vowels.' In cursive writing, small marks called accents were placed above one of the vowels of each word, as a guide to pronunciation; unfortunately, the key to the meaning of this pronunciation system has been lost. 
1.18 In learning and using New Testament Greek today, we are not going to attempt to pronounce words in the way that a First Century speaker would have done - indeed, this would hardly be possible, because (as we have seen) there was no uniform way of pronouncing the language but there was some diversity of pronunciation during the Hellenistic period. Instead, a standardized pronunciation system is adopted which is indeed based on how Greek sounds were pronounced but which is also intended as an aid to memorization.8 Even in this regard, however, there are variations in the pronunciation of New Testament Greek which will be found in its use today. 
1.19 The pronunciation scheme followed in this book is a common one which is in current use. It adopts pronunciations which were used during the Hellenistic period and also takes account of how words are spelt and how they are best pronounced by students of New Testament Greek today, with the goal of having a phonemic system, that is, "one letter, one pronunciation". Thus the pronunciation scheme adopted in this book (which is also found in numerous other Grammars of New Testament Greek) is superior on these grounds to the alternatives, particularly because it has the practical advantage that (with a minor exception) no sound has more than one spelling: so that if you can remember the pronunciation of a word this will assist you to remember the spelling. 
1.2 ACCENTS AND BREATHINGS 
1.21 When you look at a page of the printed Greek New Testament, you will notice that the letters of the Greek alphabet are different from those of English, and that almost every Greek word has one or more little marks or signs written above one (or more) of the letters. The signs are only written above the Greek letter for "r" if it comes first in a word, or above vowels. These signs are of two completely different types, accents and breathings. 
1.22 Most Greek words carry an accent, which will be written above one of its vowels.⁹ This accent will be one of three kinds: an acute (written ´), a grave (pronounced to rhyme with "carve", written `), or a circumflex (really a combination of the acute and grave, written ^, but in some printers' typefaces it will be printed as ῀ or - as in this book ῀ ). In this book, the Greek words are given with their accents, because they are printed with accents in the text of the New Testament which the reader of this book will be learning to use. There are a small number of instances where accents are useful for the student, by serving to distinguish between word pairs which are identical apart from their accent, or by assisting with pronunciation - attention will be drawn to these instances when they are encountered. Apart from these special instances, accents serve no real purpose for those starting Greek study, and can be ignored. (The general principles of accentuation are set out in #E6, which is reached at the end of the Intermediate Course.) 

ONE: THE GREEK LANGUAGE 15
1.23 When a Greek word begins with a vowel or the letter "r", that initial vowel or "r" will be written with a mark over it which is called a breathing. There are two kinds of breathings, which look very much like English single opening and closing quotation marks (or "inverted commas"), ῾ and ᾿. 

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</iframe>1.24 If the breathing is curled to the right, like an opening inverted comma, ῾, then it is called a rough breathing, and it is pronounced as an "h" in front of the word. 
1.25 If the breathing is curled to the left, like a closing inverted comma, ᾿, then it is called a smooth breathing, and it simply indicates that the word is not pronounced with an "h" in front of it. 
1.26 Thus ὀσ- would be pronounced "os", but ὁσ- is pronounced "hos"; and ἐκ- is pronounced "ek", but ἑκ is pronounced "hek". NOTE: "οσ-" or "εκ-" could not exist, because without a breathing over the initial vowel you would not know whether or not the word started with an "h". The letters upsilon (υ, "u") and rho (ρ, "r"), always carry a rough breathing when they are initial; all other initial vowels may have either a smooth or a rough breathing. 
1.27 If a word begins with two vowels which are pronounced together (this is called a diphthong), then the rough or smooth breathing will be placed over the second vowel of the diphthong. Examples: οἰκία ("oikia"); οἱ ("hoi"). If a word begins with two vowels which are not pronounced together as a diphthong, then the breathing will be placed over the first vowel. Example: ἐᾶτε, "e-a-te". 
1.28 An accent can fall on the same vowel as a breathing. If it is an acute or a grave accent, the breathing comes first, followed by the accent: thus, ", ". If a breathing and a circumflex occur together, the circumflex is placed over the top of the breathing: thus, or . A breathing is placed in front of a vowel which is a capital letter. Thus, the breathing is placed: 
(a) over the top of an initial vowel if it is a small letter. Examples: ἰδού, ἴδε, ὁδός, ἕκτος 
(b) in front of an initial vowel if it is a capital letter. Examples: Ἀδάμ ("Adam"), Ὅτι ("Hoti"). 
(c) over the second letter of an initial diphthong, whether or not the first letter is a capital. Examples: εἰς ("eis"), οἶκος ("oikos"), οἰκία ("Oikia"). 
(d) over the first letter of two vowels which do not make a diphthong, or in front if the first letter is a capital. Examples: ἑόρακα ("he-oraka"), Ἐᾶτε ("E-a-te"). 
1.29 THE BREATHINGS RULE: Automatically note the breathing when you come to words beginning with a vowel, and be sure that you NEVER drop your aitches but always pronounce a rough breathing when it occurs, and always put the correct breathing over an initial vowel or diphthong when writing Greek words. 
1.3 PRONUNCIATION GUIDE 
1.31 TURN NOW to Appendix #A1 and work through the Pronunciation Guide and exercises which are given there. 
1.32 These exercises provide a progressive introduction to the recognition and pronunciation of all the letters of the Greek Alphabet. The exercises will be found helpful both for Greek classes and for students learning Greek on their own. 
1.33 After practising these exercises, return to this point in the Lesson. 

16 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
1.4 THE ALPHABET:
GREEK/ENGLISH EQUIVALENTS, WITH PRONUNCIATION KEYWORDS 
1.41 


<table>
 <tr><th>GREEK</th><th>ENGLISH</th><th>GREEK</th></tr>
 <tr>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><th>NAME</th><th>LETTER</th></tr>
 <tr>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><td>ἄλφα</td><td>alpha</td></tr>
 <tr><td>βῆτα</td><td>beta</td></tr>
 <tr><td>γάμμα</td><td>gamma</td></tr>
 <tr><td>δέλτα</td><td>delta</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἔ ψιλόν</td><td>epsilon</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ζῆτα</td><td>zeta</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἦτα</td><td>eta</td></tr>
 <tr><td>θῆτα</td><td>theta</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἰῶτα</td><td>iota</td></tr>
 <tr><td>κάππα</td><td>kappa</td></tr>
 <tr><td>λάμβδα</td><td>lambda</td></tr>
 <tr><td>μῦ</td><td>mu</td></tr>
 <tr><td>νῦ</td><td>nu</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ξῖ</td><td>xi</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ὂ μικρόν</td><td>omicron</td></tr>
 <tr><td>πῖ</td><td>pi</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ῥῶ</td><td>rho</td></tr>
 <tr><td>σίγμα</td><td>sigma</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ταῦ</td><td>tau</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ὖ ψιλόν</td><td>upsilon</td></tr>
 <tr><td>φῖ</td><td>phi</td></tr>
 <tr><td>χῖ</td><td>khi</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ψῖ</td><td>psi</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ὦ μέγα</td><td>omega</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><td>α</td><td>Α</td></tr>
 <tr><td>β</td><td>Β</td></tr>
 <tr><td>γ</td><td>Γ</td></tr>
 <tr><td>δ</td><td>Δ</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ε</td><td>Ε</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ζ</td><td>Ζ</td></tr>
 <tr><td>η</td><td>Η</td></tr>
 <tr><td>θ</td><td>Θ</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ι</td><td>Ι</td></tr>
 <tr><td>κ</td><td>Κ</td></tr>
 <tr><td>λ</td><td>Λ</td></tr>
 <tr><td>μ</td><td>Μ</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ν</td><td>Ν</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ξ</td><td>Ξ</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ο</td><td>Ο</td></tr>
 <tr><td>π</td><td>Π</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ρ</td><td>Ρ</td></tr>
 <tr><td>σ,ς</td><td>Σ</td></tr>
 <tr><td>τ</td><td>Τ</td></tr>
 <tr><td>υ</td><td>Υ</td></tr>
 <tr><td>φ</td><td>Φ</td></tr>
 <tr><td>χ</td><td>Χ</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ψ</td><td>Ψ</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ω</td><td>Ω</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 </tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><th>EQUIV.</th><th>KEYWORD</th></tr>
 <tr><td>a</td><td>along, father</td></tr>
 <tr><td>b</td><td>boil</td></tr>
 <tr><td>g,ng</td><td>got, along</td></tr>
 <tr><td>d</td><td>feud</td></tr>
 <tr><td>e</td><td>panguin</td></tr>
 <tr><td>dz</td><td>adze</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ē</td><td>there</td></tr>
 <tr><td>th</td><td>throw</td></tr>
 <tr><td>i</td><td>in, ski</td></tr>
 <tr><td>k</td><td>ski</td></tr>
 <tr><td>l</td><td>boil</td></tr>
 <tr><td>m</td><td>men</td></tr>
 <tr><td>n</td><td>in</td></tr>
 <tr><td>x</td><td>six</td></tr>
 <tr><td>o</td><td>got</td></tr>
 <tr><td>p</td><td>put</td></tr>
 <tr><td>r</td><td>throw</td></tr>
 <tr><td>s</td><td>six</td></tr>
 <tr><td>t</td><td>put</td></tr>
 <tr><td>u</td><td>put(truth)</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ph</td><td>photograph</td></tr>
 <tr><td>kh/ch</td><td>loch, Bach</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ps</td><td>glimpse</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ō</td><td>throw</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><th>EXAMPLES</th><th>MEANING</th></tr>
 <tr><td>ἄνθρωπος</td><td>man, human being</td></tr>
 <tr><td>βάλλω</td><td>I throw</td></tr>
 <tr><td>γῆ</td><td>earth, land</td></tr>
 <tr><td>δύναμις</td><td>power, ability</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἔργον</td><td>work, deed, action</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ζωή</td><td>life</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἡμέρα</td><td>day</td></tr>
 <tr><td>θεός</td><td>God</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἴδιος</td><td>one's own</td></tr>
 <tr><td>καρδία</td><td>heart</td></tr>
 <tr><td>λόγος</td><td>word, message</td></tr>
 <tr><td>μόνος</td><td>only, alone</td></tr>
 <tr><td>νόμος</td><td>law</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ξύλον</td><td>wood, tree</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ὅλος</td><td>whole, complete</td></tr>
 <tr><td>προφήτης</td><td>prophet</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ῥῆμα</td><td>word, object</td></tr>
 <tr><td>σάββατον</td><td>sabbath</td></tr>
 <tr><td>τόπος</td><td>place</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ὑποκριτής</td><td>hypocrite</td></tr>
 <tr><td>φωνή</td><td>voice, sound</td></tr>
 <tr><td>χρόνος</td><td>time</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ψυχή</td><td>soul, life</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ὥρα</td><td>hour, time</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 </tr>
</table>


* Common Greek words — see #0.3.
1.42 The Greek sounds represented by the letters are called phonemes. That is to say, phonemes are to speech what letters are to writing. (Phonemes are described in detail in #E1 and #E2.) 
1.43 The third letter of the alphabet, gamma, pronounced "g" as in "got", also has a second function in Greek. When the letter nu, "n", occurs in front of any of the phonemes made at the palate (the phonemes γ, κ, χ, and ξ), it is pronounced "ng" and is written using the letter gamma instead of nu. Thus ἐγχρίω consists of ἐν joined with χρίω, and is pronounced "eng-chrio". (In English, "n" in front of a palatal is also pronounced as "ng", as in "anger", "ankle", "anchor", "anxious", "anxiety".) When gamma is used in this way, and given this pronunciation, it is actually quite a different letter from "normal" gamma. When it is to be pronounced in this way it can be called enga (ἔγγα).¹¹ Practise pronouncing these examples of the use of enga: 
ἐγγύς, ὄγκος, ἄγγελος, ἀγκάλη, ἄγκυρα, ἐγγίζω, ἐγχρίω, ἐγκρίνω, τυγχάνω, ἐγγράφω, ἐγκακέω, ἐγκαλέω, ἐγκάθετος, ἐλέγχω, σάλπιγξ, φάραγξ
1.44 When the letter iota begins a word and is followed by a vowel — as indeed it is in its own name — then it is pronounced as "y". So iota, the name of this letter, is pronounced "yo-ta" (rhyming with "quota"). Ἰησοῦς, "Jesus", is pronounced "Yair-sous", rhyming with "their use". Similarly, upsilon, υ, is pronounced as "w" when it comes in front of a vowel (as in υἱός, son). 

Because they have some of the functions of a vowel and some of those of a consonant, these two phonemes, and rho, ρ, can be described as semi-vowels. 
1.45 When the letter rho begins a word, it is written ῥ, "rh", but the "h" should not be pronounced. (Compare the "silent h" at the beginning of English words which have come from the Greek, such as "rhapsody", "rhetoric", "rheumatism", "rhyme", "rhythm", and numerous others.) If a double rho occurs in a word it may be found with a smooth breathing written over the first rho and a rough breathing over the second one. For example, ἐρρήθησαν (Galatians 3:16) may sometimes (especially in older editions of the Greek text) be found printed as ἐῤῥήθησαν. 
1.46 NOTE: The syllables of a Greek word are pronounced so as to begin with a consonant. Thus γράφω is not pronounced γράφ-ω but γρά-φω. Similarly ὅλος is not pronounced ὅλ-ος but ὅ-λος. Break up other words in the same way. Where there are two consonants between vowels, start the syllable with the second one, thus: ἄν-θρω-πος, ὑπο-κρι-τής. Similarly divide up the pronunciation of a double letter; thus ἔξω is pronounced ἔκ-σω. 
1.47 LEARN: (a) The Greek alphabet (from the Greek column), in the correct order, with the correct pronunciation, as shown by the English keywords. 
(b) The English keyword(s) for each letter. Each keyword contains the English equivalent of the Greek letter you are learning, and the keyword gives that letter the pronunciation that it has in Greek. Knowing these keywords can assist you greatly with your pronunciation in the initial stages of your study of Greek. 
1.48 NOTE: When going through the Vocabulary of each new Lesson, always carefully pronounce each word aloud. When commencing work on each Selection from the Greek New Testament, read aloud that Selection in Greek first of all. This care about pronunciation, and practising reading out aloud, is exceedingly important. It is no harder to get into the habit of pronouncing a word correctly instead of incorrectly. An incorrect pronunciation will very easily mislead you into an incorrect spelling and possible confusion about words and forms. On the other hand, if you harness your eye and ear together, so that they operate in conjunction, each will aid and reinforce the other in the learning process. In consequence you will learn your work more quickly, more effectively, and more permanently. 
1.5 VOWELS 
1.51 Vowels are sounds (phonemes) that you make by the shape that you give to your mouth while you are breathing out air from your lungs. 
1.52 There are seven vowels in the Greek alphabet, two of which are short, two of which are long, and three of which may be either short or long. These vowels (with their keywords) are: 

<table>
 <tr>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Short Vowels</td>
 <td>Long Vowels</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>α (along)</td>
 <td>α (father)</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>ε (penguin)</td>
 <td>η (there)</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>ι (in)</td>
 <td>ι (ski)</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>ο (got)</td>
 <td>ω (throw)</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>υ (put)</td>
 <td>υ (truth)</td>
 </tr>
</table>

1.53 Short vowels followed by ρ and a consonant can be pronounced as in English. Thus: Short α followed by ρ can be pronounced as English "ar", as in καρδία, "kar-dia". Short ε followed by ρ can be pronounced as English "er", as in ἔργον, "er-gon". Short ο followed by ρ can be pronounced as English "or", as in ὀργή, pronounced "or-gair". 
1.54 Two vowels, ι and υ, can combine with each of the short vowels and with each other into a vowel-pair which has a distinct pronunciation, and which is called a diphthong (pronounced diff-thong). There are thus these seven diphthongs: 

<table>
<tr>
 <td>DIPHTHONG </td>
 <td>KEYWORD </td>
 <td>GREEK EXAMPLES </td>
 <td>MEANINGS </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>αι</td>
 <td>aisle</td>
 <td>*αἰών</td>
 <td>age, world</td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>ει</td>
 <td>eight</td>
 <td>*εἰρήνη</td>
 <td>peace</td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>οι</td>
 <td>boil</td>
 <td>*οἶκος</td>
 <td>house, household</td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>υι</td>
 <td>penguin/suite</td>
 <td>*υἱός</td>
 <td>son</td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>αυ</td>
 <td>Strauss</td>
 <td>*αὐτός</td>
 <td>he, self, same</td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>ευ</td>
 <td>feud</td>
 <td>*εὐαγγέλιον</td>
 <td>gospel</td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>ου</td>
 <td>group</td>
 <td>*οὐρανός</td>
 <td>heaven</td>
</tr>
</table>


NOTE: υι is pronounced as in "penguin" if ι is short, and as in "suite" if ι is long — as is usually the case. However, this diphthong is not very common. 
1.55 Practise your pronunciation of the Greek diphthongs with these words: 
(a) καί, ναί, παῖς, καιρός, χαίρω, δίκαιος, παιδίον, δαιμόνιον, αἰών, αἷμα, αἰτέω 
(b) εἰ, εἰς, εἷς, δεῖ, εἴτε, εἶδον, εἶπον, εἰμί, τρεῖς, ἡμεῖς, πλείων, πείθω, σπείρω, εἰρήνη, ἐκεῖνος, ἀλήθεια 
(c) οἶδα, οἶκος, οἰκία, λοιπός, ποιμήν, πλοῖον, κατοικέω, ποιέω, ὅμοιος, ἀνοίγω 
(d) υἱός, λελυκυῖα 
(e) αὐτός, αὐτή, αὕτη, αὐταί, αὗται, αὐγή, αὐλός, αὔριον, αὐξάνω, σεαυτοῦ, σταυρόω, θησαυρός 
(f) εὖ, εὐθύς, πιστεύω, βασιλεύς, εὐαγγέλιον, δεύτερος, ψεῦδος, εὐλογέω, εὐχαριστέω, εὑρίσκω, εὐαγγελίζω, πνεῦμα, γραμματεύς 
(g) οὐ, οὐκ, οὐχ, οὐχί, οὖν, οὐδέ, οὐκέτι, οὐρανός, οὗτος, ποῦ, πούς, νοῦς, ἰδού, ὅπου, δοῦλος, ἀκούω, ἐξουσία 
1.56 IOTA SUBSCRIPT: The long vowels (α, η, and ω) can also combine with ι, and the iota is then written subscript, i.e. below the main vowel, as ᾳ, ῃ and ῳ. A vowel is pronounced the same with iota subscript as without it. NOTE: As with the breathing, iota subscript is part of the spelling of a word and must never be omitted in writing a word in which it occurs. 
1.57 OTHER VOWELS TOGETHER: In all other cases where vowels occur together they do not form a vowel combination but are each pronounced separately; e.g., ὄγδοος, "eighth"; κύριε, "sir"; Βηθλέεμ, "Bethlehem". (Notice that it is not possible to use a rough breathing in the middle of a word to give an "h" sound, so the "h" of "Bethlehem" is simply omitted.) 
1.58 LEARN the seven diphthongs, together with the English keyword(s) for each diphthong. 
Each keyword contains the English letters corresponding with those in the diphthong you are learning, and the keyword gives that diphthong the pronunciation that it has in Greek. (There is 
ONE: THE GREEK LANGUAGE 19 
actually no English word which contains the right pronunciation of "au" corresponding to the Greek, so the name "Strauss" has been used because most people will know of this composer. The αυ sound of Greek is usually written in English as "ou", as in "cloud", or "ow", as in "crowd".) Knowing these keywords can assist you greatly with your pronunciation in the initial stages of your study of Greek. 
1.59 It is essential to become completely fluent as quickly as possible in reading the Greek letters, and pronouncing words correctly. The following passage from Luke 14:27-28 should be read and reread out aloud until correct pronunciation is automatic, and complete fluency is attained — it contains all 24 letters of the Greek alphabet: 
Καὶ ὅστις οὐ βαστάζει τὸν σταυρὸν αὐτοῦ καὶ ἔρχεται ὀπίσω μου, οὐ δύναται εἶναί μου μαθητής. Τίς γὰρ ἐξ ὑμῶν, ὁ θέλων πύργον οἰκοδομῆσαι, οὐχὶ πρῶτον καθίσας ψηφίζει τὴν δαπάνην, εἰ ἔχει τὰ εἰς ἀπαρτισμόν; 
1.6 CONSONANTS 
1.61 Consonants are sounds (phonemes) that you make by interfering with the smooth flow of air from your lungs when you breathe out. Consonants can be classified according to how you interfere with the flow of escaping air (this is called the manner of articulation of the consonant), and where you interfere with the flow of escaping air (called the place of articulation). 
1.62 There are three possible places of articulation: at the lips (producing sounds that are called labials), or at the teeth, using the tongue (producing dentals), or at the palate, again using the tongue (producing palatals). 
1.63 The manner of articulation can be either to stop the flow of air altogether for a moment (producing a stop consonant) or to restrict the flow of air without stopping it, causing friction while the sound continues (and thus producing the continuants). 
1.64 The stop consonants can be made either with or without the use of your vocal chords, so that they will be either voiced or unvoiced. It is also possible to put your mouth into position for making one of the stop consonants and to make an "h" sound there: this will give you three aspirated sounds, one aspirate for each "place" position in the mouth. The three Greek aspirates were originally stop consonants. Consequently, when they interact with following phonemes (sounds) they usually behave like (and therefore are grouped with and treated as) stops. 
1.65 The continuants can be released either through the mouth or the nose. If the sound is released through the nose, this produces the three sounds called nasal liquids, one for each of the three "place" positions, labial (at the lips, giving "m"), palatal (at the palate, giving "ng"), and dental (at the back of the teeth, giving "n"). 
1.66 There are also two "liquid" sounds which can be made in the mouth, the oral liquids ("1" and "r"). Rho, ρ, is both an oral liquid and a semi-vowel — at times it functions as a consonant, and at times as a vowel. It is therefore listed twice in the following table. 
1.67 Other oral phonemes one can make are a hissing noise (called a sibilant, the "s" sound, if unvoiced, and the "z" sound, if voiced). A sibilant can be added to a stop consonant in each "place" position: which will give you the three double consonants, ψ, ξ, and ζ — but note that two of these, ψ and ξ are unvoiced, and ξ is voiced. 
1.68 Zeta, ζ, functioned in New Testament times as "z", the voiced equivalent of sigma, σ (for example, in transliterations from Hebrew such as Ναζαρέτ, "Nazareth"), and also (more frequently) as the double letter "dz". It is listed in the following table in two places: as a sibilant (the voiced equivalent of σ) and again as a dental in the "double letter" line, since it functions in the language in both ways. In early times zeta had two pronunciations, as zd, and as dz, reflecting the two sources from which it developed. Of these alternatives the pronunciation adopted and recommended here is dz, paralleling the labial double letter ψ and the palatal ξ.⁷
1.69 The Greek consonants can be set out in a table which shows their manner and place of articulation and all their other features.

 <table>
 <tr><td>MANNER OF ARTICULATION</td><td>  </td><td>PLACE OF ARTICULATION</td></tr>
 <tr>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
 <tr><td>STOPS: </td><td>Unvoiced</td></tr>
 <tr><td> </td><td>Voiced</td></tr>
 <tr><td> </td><td>Aspirated</td></tr>
 <tr><td> </td><td>Double</td></tr>
 <tr><td>CONTINUANTS: </td><td>Nasal Liquids</td></tr>
 <tr><td> </td><td>Oral Liquids</td></tr>
 <tr><td> </td><td>Semi-vowels</td></tr>
 <tr><td> </td><td>Sibilants</td></tr>
 <tr><td>SPECIAL: </td><td> </td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 <td></td>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><th>Labials</th><th>Palatals</th><th>Dentals</th></tr>
 <tr><td>π</td><td>κ</td><td>τ</td></tr>
 <tr><td>β</td><td>γ (gamma)</td><td>δ</td></tr>
 <tr><td>φ</td><td>χ</td><td>θ</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ψ</td><td>ξ</td><td>ζ</td></tr>
 <tr><td>μ</td><td>γ</td><td>ν</td></tr>
 <tr><td></td><td></td><td>ρ,λ</td></tr>
 <tr><td>υ</td><td>ι</td><td>ρ</td></tr>
 <tr><td></td><td></td><td>σ,ζ</td></tr>
 <tr><td>πτ</td><td>σσ</td><td></td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 </tr>
 </table>

The "special" double combinations πτ and σσ are included here for the sake of completeness, and will be explained in due course. At this stage it is only necessary to note them. 
NOTE: SEEK TO UNDERSTAND this table now, and why the different phonemes are listed in a particular classification — you will frequently find it very helpful to know which consonants are labials, palatals and dentals. We will refer back to it from time to time because the place of articulation affects how words behave when different endings etc. are added to them. 
1.7 WRITING 
1.71 WRITING GREEK: The written form of Greek at which you should aim is a style similar to that of the Greek printed characters, but without any of its ornateness. Aim at simplicity, clarity, and ease of recognition — avoid frills and flourishes. Practice writing the cursive (lower-case) characters as they are given here: 

ONE: THE GREEK LANGUAGE 21 
1.72 NOTE THAT: β, δ, ζ, θ, λ, and ξ, and these only, are double-height lowercase letters (though the strokes of φ and ψ go to double height); THAT the two strokes of χ cross on or just above the line; THAT the tails of ζ, ξ, and ς go below the line, as do the stems or legs of β, γ, η, μ, ρ, φ, χ and ψ. All capital letters are of uniform double height, and sit upon the line. 
1.73 TRANSCRIBING INTO ENGLISH: English words derived from Greek are usually spelt with the corresponding English equivalent letters. But note that Greek chi (χ) comes into English as "ch" (as in "Christ") and not as "x", which is ξ. When upsilon (υ) is long it comes into English as "u"; but usually it is short and transliterates as the vowel "y" (as in "hypocrite"). The diphthong ου comes into English as "u" (as in "uranus", "Luke", and "Jesus"). The diphthong ευ is still "eu" in English before a consonant ("Eucharist"), but "ev" before a vowel ("evangelist"). The Greek γγ (i.e. enga plus gamma — see #1.43) becomes "ng" in English ("angel"); κ comes across into English as "k" when it is taken directly from the Greek, and as "c" when it has come via Latin. Be careful to distinguish the Greek capitals Ρ, Χ, Η and Υ from their English look-alikes. 
1.74 THE WORD ENDINGS RULE: All Greek words end either in a vowel or else in ν, ρ or ς (including ψ and ξ). The only exceptions are the words ἐκ ("out of") and οὐκ/οὐχ ("not"), which are always pronounced with the word which follows; and foreign proper names (for example, Ἀβραάμ, Βηθλέεμ). Whenever the inflectional changes that take place in a word bring any other consonant to the end of that word, then that consonant is dropped. 
1.75 MOVABLE NU AND MOVABLE SIGMA: Numbers of words which end in -εν or -ιν may drop the -ν, especially when followed by a word beginning with a consonant, without any punctuation between these two words. (Thus: the Greek word for "is" can be written ἐστίν or ἐστί.) This -ν is known as "movable nu". Similarly, ἐξ, "out of", and three other less common words drop their final sigma phoneme before a following consonant. That is, they have a "movable sigma": ἐξ thus becomes ἐκ before a consonant. (Note that is made up of the amalgamation of κ and ς.) 
1.8 PUNCTUATION 
1.81 PUNCTUATION MARKS: There are six punctuation marks in Greek: 
(a) , The same as the English comma. 
(b) . The same as the English full stop, or, period. 
(c) · The high point — similar to the English semicolon and colon. 
(d) ; The Greek question mark — do not confuse this with our semicolon. 
(e) ' The Greek apostrophe, similar to the smooth breathing in appearance, which is used (as in English, in words such as "can't", "he's") to indicate an elision, that is, where a letter has dropped out. Its use will be explained in due course. Examples: δ’ ἂν (Mark 3:29) for δὲ ἂν; ἀπ’ αὐτοῦ (Mark 1:42) for ἀπὸ αὐτοῦ; ἀλλ’ ὁ (John 1:33) for ἀλλὰ ὁ. 
(f) ¨ The diaeresis, which is used (as in English, in a word such as "naïve") where two vowels which normally combine to form a diphthong are to be pronounced separately. For example, ἀϊδίοις, βαΐον, Ἠσαΐας, ἰχθύϊ, προϋπῆρχεν. 
1.82 LATE USE: This punctuation was NOT used in the earliest, uncial, manuscripts of the Greek New Testament, where in fact the practice of the time was to run all the words together without a space between them. Punctuation was later incorporated in cursive writing and is used today in all printed editions of the Greek New Testament.'² NOTE that as there was no punctuation in the original manuscripts, this has been added by later editors. 

22 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
1.83 Where Knowing Greek Makes a Difference: If you know Greek, you will therefore be aware that the punctuation in the printed text of the Greek New Testament reflects the judgement of the editors. Therefore at a number of points it is a matter of interpretation as to whether a particular phrase, clause, or sentence is a question or a statement. For example, are Romans 8:33b and 8:34b statements or questions? — the Greek itself does not indicate which it is, the only difference being one of punctuation. Romans 8:33-34 reads (NRSV), "Who will bring any charge against God's elect? It is God who justifies. Who is to condemn? It is Christ Jesus, who died, yes, who was raised, who is at the right hand of God, who indeed intercedes for us." But the second part of each verse could very well be taken as a question (the NRSV gives this possibility as a marginal reading for verse 34). Seeing these sentences as being questions is in line with the whole of the rest of the context of 8:31-35, all of the other sentences of which are taken as questions by translators. Taking these verses this way underlines the impossibility of the thought that the One who justifies, the One who saves and intercedes for us, would bring a charge against us or condemn us: "Who will bring any charge against God's elect? Will God do this, when he is the One who justifies? Who is to condemn? Is it Christ Jesus [who will do this when he is the One] who died, yes, who was raised, who is at the right hand of God, who indeed intercedes for us?" 
1.84 DIRECT SPEECH: Greek has no quotation marks. How then can we know when someone's actual words are being quoted? The beginning of direct speech is usually indicated by the use of an initial capital (see #1.16). Additionally, to indicate the beginning of direct speech the author may use the word ὅτι (which is thus equivalent to English opening inverted commas). But this word also means "that" and "because"; when an author uses it to indicate the beginning of direct speech, we will recognize this because in our printed edition of the New Testament (and in this present book) the next word will begin with a capital letter. The end of direct speech is often indicated by the words which follow it being ὁ δὲ ..., which mean, "and he ..." (referring to the other person in the conversation); and similarly ἡ δὲ ... ("and she . ..") for the feminine and οἱ δὲ ... ("and they") for the plural. But in many places in the New Testament there remain uncertainties as to whether something is a quotation or direct speech, or not, and as to where direct speech ends. [Two examples from John 3: it is uncertain whether what Jesus is saying to Nicodemus concludes at verse 13 (as in the Good News Bible), or verse 15 (as in the RSV) or verse 21 (as in the NIV, NRSV, and others); it is also uncertain whether what John the Baptist is saying concludes at verse 30 (GNB, RSV, NRSV) or verse 36 (Phillips, Jerusalem, NW).] 
1.9 GREEK WORDS 
1.91 Greek words consist of two kinds, the "changing" and the "unchanging". The "unchanging" words remain the same every time they are used. These words have the grammatical names (which will be explained next Lesson) "conjunctions", "prepositions", "adverbs", "particles", "negatives", and "the infinitive". The "changing" words take different forms to indicate all the different kinds of grammatical information which the text is telling us. "Changing" words are "nouns", "pronouns", "adjectives", "verbs", "participles", and "the article" (these are all called "parts of speech", and these various terms will be explained next Lesson). 
1.92 Many Greek words consist of two or more parts or segments, with each segment of the word conveying a particular "piece" or "unit" of information. Each such segment of a word is called a morph¹³, and a morph is described and named according to the information that it gives. Thus the "lexical part" of an inflected word (that is, the part that carries the lexical or dictionary meaning of the word) can be described as the lexical morph, or lexal¹⁴. The changes which take place in a word are called inflection. An inflected word consists of a lexal together with various "additional" morphs (technically known as affixes) which give the reader grammatical information. The lexal generally remains the same in the different forms of an inflected word, while the affixes change 
ONE: THE GREEK LANGUAGE 23 
from one use of the word to the next. A set of these inflected forms is a flexion¹⁵. An affix may be added in front of a lexal (a prefix), into a lexal (an infix) or at the end of a lexal (a suffix). A suffix will frequently be composed of several morphs, each of which conveys different information about a word's grammatical meaning. The last morph of a word is often called its "ending". 
1.93 For example θεός (see #1.41) consists of the lexal θε-, which carries the word's lexical meaning of "God", and -ος its ending, which indicates its grammatical information (in this case, that this form is nominative singular, the form used when the word is the subject of a sentence). With a different ending the word will have a different grammatical meaning — thus the form θεοῦ means "of God" or "God's" (that is, the ending -ου indicates the grammatical information that is technically called genitive singular). "Christ" is Χριστός, so "of Christ" or "Christ's" is Χριστοῦ). Question: "world" is κόσμος; so what is the Greek for "world's"? 
1.94 However, for feminine words such as ζωή, "life", the ending meaning "the subject of a sentence" is -η and the ending of the genitive singular is -ης. Similarly for other nouns such as γῆ, "earth"; φωνή, "voice"; ψυχή, "soul" (see #1.41). And being feminine, these will all take the feminine form of the word "the" with them. Question: what will be the meaning of ζωῆς?
1.95 Verbs can have even greater variety in their forms. The most frequently-occurring verb is *εἰμί (it is used almost 2,500 times in the Greek New Testament). This is the flexion for the verb εἰμί, together with the emphatic pronouns which can be used with these verb forms: 

 <table>
 <tr><th> </th><th>Present Tense of the Verb "to be"</th><th>Emphatic Pronouns</th></tr>
 <tr>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><td>S</td><td>1   </td></tr>
 <tr><td></td><td>2</td></tr>
 <tr><td></td><td>3</td></tr>
 <tr><td>P</td><td>1</td></tr>
 <tr><td></td><td>2</td></tr>
 <tr><td></td><td>3</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><td>εἰμί</td><td>  I am</td></tr>
 <tr><td>εἶ</td><td>  you (singular) are</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἐστί(ν)</td><td>  [he/she/it] is</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἐσμέν</td><td>  we are</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἐστέ</td><td>  you (plural) are</td></tr>
 <tr><td>εἰσί(ν)</td><td>  [they] are</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><td>ἐγώ</td><td>  I (emphatic)</td></tr>
 <tr><td>σύ</td><td>  you (singular) (emphatic)</td></tr>
 <tr><td>αὐτός</td><td>  he (emphatic)</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἡμεῖς</td><td>  we (emphatic)</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ὑμεῖς</td><td>  you (plural) (emphatic)</td></tr>
 <tr><td>αὐτοί</td><td>  they (emphatic)</td></tr>
 </table>

 </td></tr>
 </table>

1.96 NOTE the two forms which have nu in brackets: this is movable nu (see #1.75), which may be found either included or omitted in the spelling when these forms are used in a sentence. The forms are to be learnt with the nu.
1.97 Using these forms and the Vocabulary which was introduced earlier (in #1.41 and #1.54) it is now possible for us to make up, or to translate, many Greek sentences. Thus "He is a man of God" will be ἐστὶν ἄνθρωπος θεοῦ. Similarly, "It is Christ's work" is ἐστὶν ἔργον Χριστοῦ (note that the genitive Χριστός), "Christ's", will in Greek come after the word [ἔργον, "work"] that it refers to). And σὺ εἶ ὑποκριτής means You (singular, emphatic) are a hypocrite"; and ἡμεῖς ἐσμὲν οἶκος θεοῦ is "We (emphatic) are God's household"; εἰμὶ προφήτης θεοῦ is "I am God's prophet" or "I am a prophet of God"; ἐστὶν δύναμις Χριστοῦ is "It is Christ's power".
1.98 Much of the work of the next nine Lessons will consist of learning the different types of inflection that can occur in Greek, and which words take one kind of inflection or the other, and the difference that is made to the meaning of a word by inflecting it, and how the words are assembled into sentences to express the author's meaning. The various morphs will all be identified and their functions explained. But if you can see how these short sentences in #1.97 are to be translated from Greek into English (or vice versa), then you are ready to try your hand at translating some actual sentences from the Greek New Testament. 

24 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
ASSIGNMENTS ON LESSON ONE 
1.. APPENDIX: READ CAREFULLY through Appendix #A0 and #A1. 
2.. ALPHABET AND DIPHTHONGS: (a) LEARN the Greek alphabet (#1.41): the names of the Greek letters, their order, their appearance, and their pronunciation. (The best way of doing this is to read down the column of the Greek names of the letters of the alphabet, saying them aloud, and then close your eyes and recite the names of the letters in order. Open your eyes to recheck any that you forget. Repeat this exercise, writing out the Greek letters. Spend five minutes each day going over them out loud, first of all reading them, and then saying them again with your eyes closed. Repeat until you can recite the whole alphabet without looking, and with confidence — and accuracy.) (b) LEARN the diphthongs (#1.54). (c) LEARN the keyword(s) (#1.41, #1.54) for the sound of each letter and diphthong. 
3.. PRONUNCIATION: NOTE the Greek words in the columns "Greek examples" (#1.41 and #1.54) — PRACTISE reading them out aloud, using the keywords as necessary to confirm that you have the correct pronunciation. WORK OUT the pronunciation of Luke 14:27-28 (#1.59). 
4.. WRITING: WRITE OUT in your Workbook, to hand in to your class teacher (to help you with your writing) the Greek words in the columns "Greek examples" (#1.41 and #1.54). (Ignore accents, but remember that you must put the correct smooth or rough breathing on initial vowels and diphthongs.)
5.. FLEXIONS FOR LEARNING: Your first flexion to learn is the Present Tense of the verb "to be", and the emphatic pronouns which can be used with these forms (#1.95). (The best way of doing this is to spend five minutes saying the forms each day. First of all read through the forms out loud, and then say them again aloud with your eyes closed. Repeat this pattern until you can say them without looking, and with confidence — and accuracy.)
6.. WORKBOOK: ANSWER THE QUESTIONS in your Workbook about what has been covered in Lesson One.
7.. VOCABULARY CARDS: Prepare a set of Vocabulary Cards for this Lesson. Purchase a packet of small system cards and write on the cards the words of the Greek Examples (#1.41 and #1.54), and the emphatic pronouns (#1.95). Write one word per card, the Greek word on one side, and the English meaning(s) on the other. In the top lefthand corner of each side of each card write 1 (meaning, a word introduced in Lesson One). Sort your cards into Greek alphabetical order. Use them whenever you need to check on a word you have not remem¬bered which is used in a Greek Sentence.
8. TRANSLATION EXERCISES: Translate the following Selections from the Greek New Testament, and the English-into-Greek sentences. (Some of these exercises can be done in class at the end of the Lesson, to assist students in seeing how to undertake translation, and the balance set for homework before next class. Or they can all be set for homework.)
VOCABULARY
To translate the following sentences you will need to use the forms of the verb "to be" (#1.95), together with the words on your Vocabulary Cards, from the "Greek Examples" in #1.41 and #1.54 and the emphatic pronouns (#1.95). Other words that will be needed are given below, next to the first sentence in which they are used: make out Vocabulary Cards for each of these new words as you come to them.
ONE: THE GREEK LANGUAGE 25 
NOTE: προφήτης means either "prophet" or "a prophet"; more on this next Lesson (#2.32). 

ALSO NOTE: the word "the" has these forms in these sentences: 

 <table>
 <tr><td></td><td></td><th>Masculine</th><th>Feminine</th><th>Neuter</th></tr>
 <tr><th>Singular</th><th>Nominative</th><td>ὁ </td><td>ἡ </td><td>τό</td></tr>
 <tr><td></td><th>Genitive</th><td>τοῦ</td><td>τῆς</td><td>τοῦ</td></tr>
 </table>

A. SELECTIONS FROM THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
(NOTE: These are selected extracts from the Greek New Testament verses listed; only a part of the verse is being set for you to translate at this stage.) 

<table>
 <tr><th></th><th>SELECTIONS</th><th>ADDITIONAL VOCABULARY</th></tr>
 <tr><td>A1.</td><td>οὗτός ἐστιν ὁ υἱὸς τοῦ θεοῦ. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 1:34)</td><td>*οὗτος: this, this man;</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A2.</td><td>ἐσμὲν τέκνα θεοῦ. (ΠΡΟΣ ΡΩΜΑΙΟΥΣ 8:16)</td><td>*τέκνα: children;</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A3.</td><td>οὗτός ἐστιν ἀληθῶς ὁ σωτὴρ τοῦ κόσμου. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 4:42)</td><td>ἀληθῶς: truly; σωτήρ:saviour; *κόσμος: world;</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A4.</td><td>Σὺ εἶ ὁ διδάσκαλος τοῦ Ἰσραήλ. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 3:10)</td><td>*διδάσκαλος: teacher; τοῦ Ἰσραήλ: of Israel;</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A5.</td><td> Ῥαββί, σὺ εἶ ὁ υἱὸς τοῦ θεοῦ, σὺ εἶ ὁ βασιλεὺς τοῦ Ἰσραήλ. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 1:49)</td><td>Ῥαββί: Rabbi; [ὁ] *βασιλεύς: [the] king;</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A6.</td><td>Ὑμεῖς δέ ἐστε σῶμα χριστοῦ(ΠΡΟΣ ΚΟΡΙΝΘΙΟΥΣ Α 12:27)</td><td>*σῶμα: body; *χριστός: Christ;</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A7.</td><td>Σὺ τίς εἶ; Οὐκ εἰμὶ ἐγὼ ὁ χριστός. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 1:19-20)</td><td>*τίς: who?; *οὐκ: not;</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A8.</td><td>Ἐγώ εἰμι ὁ ἄρτος τῆς ζωῆς . (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 6:48)</td><td>*ἄρτος: bread, loaf [of bread];</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A9.</td><td>Ἀρχὴ τοῦ εὐαγγελίου Ἰησοῦ χριστοῦ, υἱοῦ τοῦ θεοῦ. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΡΚΟΝ 1:1)</td><td>*ἀρχή: beginning, [the] beginning; *Ἰησοῦς: Jesus;</td></tr>
</table>


B. TRANSLATION FROM ENGLISH INTO GREEK 
(Do not attempt to put accents on the Greek words; do NOT omit breathings.)

 <table>
 <tr><td>B1.</td><td>I (emphatic) am the Christ. (Matthew 24:5)</td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><td>B2.</td><td>Are you (emphatic) the king of the Jews? (Mt 27:11//Mk 15:2//Lk 23:3//Jn 18:33)</td><td>of the Jews: τῶν Ἰουδαίων</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B3.</td><td>This is Jesus the king of the Jews. (Matthew 27:37)</td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><td>B4.</td><td>I (emphatic) am the light of the world. (John 8:12)</td><td>the light: τὸ φῶς</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B5.</td><td>You (plural, emphatic) are the light of the world. (Matthew 5:14)</td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><td>B6.</td><td>You (plural, emphatic) are the salt of the earth. the salt: ra (Matthew 5:13)</td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><td>B7.</td><td>I (emphatic) am the resurrection and the life. (John 11:25)</td><td>the resurrection: ἡ ἀνάστασις; and: *καί</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B8.</td><td>Truly you are God's son. (Matthew 14:33)</td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><td>B9.</td><td>You (emphatic) are a prophet. (John 4:19)</td><td></td></tr>
 </table>

 The Greek New Testament wording for these Sentences is set out in the Student Workbook, page 55. However, a different Greek word order would also be possible for most of them.
* Common Greek words — see #0.3.
<hr>
</div>
<div id="L2" class="Lesson">
LESSON TWO 
THE ARTICLE; THE SECOND DECLENSION; THE PRESENT ACTIVE FLEXION 
2.1 THE GREEK SENTENCE 
2.11 A sentence is, in its simplest form, a statement about something; that is, a topic, and a comment about that topic. The topic, the "something" about which the statement is being made, is called the subject of the sentence. Usually, the subject will be a noun. 
2.12 A NOUN is the name of a person, place, or thing (such as "Jesus", "Bethlehem", "Jordan", etc.), or the term used to refer to a person, place, or thing (such as "man", "town", "river", etc.). 
2.13 Each noun in Greek is of a particular gender. As in English, there are three genders in Greek: masculine, feminine, and neuter — but many things that are neuter in English will be found to be masculine or feminine gender in Greek, and vice versa. That is to say, gender is a grammatical category, and does not always correspond with the category of biological sex. 
2.14 A noun can be either singular or plural ("man"/"men"; "town"/"towns") — this feature is called its number. Greek indicates whether a noun is singular or plural by the kind of ending or suffix which is added to the noun's lexal (sometimes called its stem). In addition to gender and number, a noun has a third grammatical feature, case, to be discussed in the next section. 
2.15 A PRONOUN is a word which can be used in the place of a noun (hence the term "pro-noun"), as in "Jesus calls his own sheep by name, and they follow him." (The words in italics are pronouns.) Pronouns are of various kinds, which we will meet in due course. Some other examples are: "he", "she", "it", "you", "my", "this", "who". (See further: #D6, Pronouns.) 
2.16 THE VERB: In a sentence, the comment about the subject will be made by means of a verb, which states what is happening. A verb can be a lexical verb (one that has "dictionary meaning", like "made" or "states"), or an auxiliary verb such as "will", "be" and "is" in the previous sentence, or "did" in the sentence "Did you not sow good seed in your field?". A lexical verb is a word of "being" or "doing". (See further: #D6, Pronouns.) 
2.17 By the rule of verb agreement, a verb will agree with its subject in number, so that if the subject is plural, the form of the verb will also be plural. Thus, the subject selects or determines the number of the verb. There are two exceptions to this normal rule of verb agreement: 
    (a) the neuter plural subject rule is that in Greek grammar a neuter plural subject takes a singular verb (a small number of exceptions to this rule are found in the New Testament); and 
    (b) the multiple subject rule is that when the verb has a multiple subject (such as "Jesus and his disciples") the verb agrees in number with that part of the multiple subject to which it is closest. We will be considering examples of these exceptions in due course. 
2.18 OTHER PARTS OF SPEECH: (a) A complete sentence can consist of just two words, a subject and a verb: "Jesus wept" (John 11:35). Usually, however, a sentence will contain additional words which give further information about either the subject or the verb. These may be additional nouns or pronouns. Or they may be other "parts of speech" such as the following. 
    (b) Adjectives: words which further describe or identify the noun. For example, in the sentence "You are my beloved son", "my" and "beloved", are adjectives; and in "Did you not sow good seed in your field?", "good" and "your" are adjectives. 
26

TWO: THE ARTICLE; 2ND DECLENSION; PRESENT ACTIVE FLEXION 27 
    (c) Prepositions are words which show the relationship of a noun to the rest of the sentence: Examples are "in" in "in your field" and "before" in "before your face". 
    (d) Adverbs are words which give more details about the action of the verb (which is why they are called adverbs — they add something to the meaning of the verb). 
    (e) A conjunction can join two short sentences together, combining them into one sentence, each part of which is then called a clause, with its own verb and subject. Thus the two sentences "You have faith" and "I have works" can be combined together into one sentence with the conjunction "and": "You have faith and I have works" (James 2:18, L2/B3). In Greek it is common for sentences to commence with a conjunction. 
    (f) Other "parts of speech" include negatives ("no", "not"), and exclamations ("Look!", "Behold"). 
2.19 EXAMPLES: In these sentences, can you identify what part of speech each word is?
    "You are my beloved son." 
    "Did you not sow good seed in your field?" 
    "Behold, I send my messenger before your face." 
2.2 INFLECTED FORMS FOR NOUNS, PRONOUNS, AND ADJECTIVES 
2.21 A noun or pronoun can have different types of relationships to its sentence. Its relationship in a particular sentence will be shown by a preposition or by its case, or by the two together. The case of a noun (that is, its relationship to the rest of the sentence) is indicated by the particular ending which is added to the noun's lexal or stem: in general, each case uses a different ending. 
2.22 There are four main cases in Greek. Thus there are eight possible forms that a noun can have, four for the singular and four for the plural. (Sometimes two forms will in fact have the same ending.) There is also an additional, vocative, form for some words. Thus a noun is made up of a lexal or stem, giving its lexical meaning, and a suffix called the numbercase morph, which carries the grammatical information of the word's number and case. Pronouns and adjectives, similarly, have a set of different forms to indicate number and case, and can have additional sets of forms to differentiate gender as well. 
2.23 "Case" exists in English as in Greek, but in English only the pronoun retains special forms to indicate what its case is. English nouns do have an ending to indicate one particular kind of relationship (the use of "-'s" to show possession), but apart from this they indicate relationship by means of position in a sentence or by the use of prepositions such as "of", "to", and "for".
2.24 The cases in Greek, and their English equivalents, are as set out in the following table. 

<table>
 <tr><th>GREEK</th><th>ENGLISH</th><th>ENGLISH PRONOUNS</th><th>ENGLISH</th></tr>
 <tr>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><th>CASE</th></tr>
 <tr><td>Nominative</td></tr>
 <tr><td>Accusative</td></tr>
 <tr><td>Genitive</td></tr>
 <tr><td>Dative</td></tr>
 <tr><td> </td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><th>CASE</th></tr>
 <tr><td>Subject</td></tr>
 <tr><td>Direct Object</td></tr>
 <tr><td>Possessive </td></tr>
 <tr><td>Indirect Object</td></tr>
 <tr><td> </td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><th>1S</th><th>1P</th><th>2S/P</th><th>3S</th><th>3P</th></tr>
 <tr><td>I </td><td>we </td><td>you </td><td>he/she/it </td><td>they</td></tr>
 <tr><td>me </td><td>us </td><td>you </td><td>him/her/it </td><td>them</td></tr>
 <tr><td>my </td><td>our </td><td>your </td><td>his/her/its</td><td>their</td></tr>
 <tr><td>⎧to me </td><td>to us </td><td>to you </td><td>to him etc.</td><td>to them etc.</td></tr>
 <tr><td>⎩for me </td><td>for us </td><td>for you </td><td>for him etc.</td><td>for them etc.</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 <th>
 <table>
 <tr><th>NOUN</th></tr>
 <tr><td>Before verb</td></tr>
 <tr><td>After verb</td></tr>
 <tr><td>-'s/of ...</td></tr>
 <tr><td>to ... or</td></tr>
 <tr><td>for ...</td></tr>
 </table>
 </th></tr>
</table>


2.25 Pronouns have an additional feature called person. Those pronouns that refer to or include the addressor (the person speaking) are said to be first person (that is, "I", "me", "us", "our", etc.); those relating to the addressee (the person/persons being spoken to or written to) are second person ("you", "your"); and those referring to a person or thing spoken or written about ("he", "her", "its", "them", etc.) are third person. Nouns will usually be third person.


28 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
2.26 The different cases can be seen in these sentences (John 2:16; 16:7): 1. You must not make my Father's house a house of merchandise subject verb possessive possessive direct object direct object possessive nominative verb genitive genitive accusative accusative genitive 2. But I speak the truth to you. conjunction subject verb direct object indirect object conjunction nominative verb accusative dative
Sometimes the word "to" is not needed in English for the indirect object — the second sentence could also be written in English as, "But I tell you the truth." "You" is still the indirect object, and the Greek would be identical for both forms of the English sentence.
2.27 In addition to the four cases mentioned, there is also a fifth case, the vocative, the form of address. The word "sir" is in the vocative case in the sentence, "Sir, we would like to see Jesus" (John 12:21). In Greek the form of the vocative is the same as for the nominative (a small number of important exceptions — which have a special form for the vocative — will be treated separately, as we come to them). 
2.28 As mentioned earlier (#1.92), Greek words show inflection by changes which are made to their endings. For nouns, pronouns, and adjectives these inflected endings, called numbercase endings, indicate the number and case of the word (and, sometimes, its gender also). The set of inflections for a word is called itsflexionls. Where the same pattern of flexion (that is, the same set of endings) is used by numbers of words, then that pattern is called a paradigm (pronounced "parrah-dime"), which means "showing the pattern" (of something). These two terms can be used for the inflections both of nouns (and pronouns and adjectives) and verbs. 
2.29 Noun paradigms which resemble one another can be grouped together on the basis of their "family resemblances". These families of nouns are called declensions, and to set out the pattern of inflected forms for a particular noun is called declining it. There are three noun "families" or declensions in New Testament Greek, with different numbers of "family members" or paradigms in each: the First Declension (D1) with five paradigms ("members"); Second Declension (D2) with three paradigms; and Third Declension (D3) with twenty paradigms. D2.1 means Declension 2, Paradigm 1; and so on. The nouns in the lists of "Greek Examples" (#1.41 and #1.54), and their Declension and Paradigm group, are: 
FIRST DECLENSION (Dl) 

<table>
 <tr><th>D1.2 Feminine Consonant Stem</th><th>D1.1 Feminine ριε Stem</th><th>D1.5 Masc. Consonant Stem</th></tr>
 <tr>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><td>γῆ</td><td>earth</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ζωή</td><td>life</td></tr>
 <tr><td>φωνή</td><td>voice/sound</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ψυχή</td><td>soul/life</td></tr>
 <tr><td>εἰρήνη</td><td>peace</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 <td style="vertical-align:top;">
 <table>
 <tr><td>ἡμέρα</td><td>day</td></tr>
 <tr><td>καρδία</td><td>heart</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ὥρα</td><td>hour/time</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 <td style="vertical-align:top;">
 <table>
 <tr><td>προφήτης</td><td>prophet</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ὑποκριτής</td><td>hypocrite</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 </tr>
</table>

SECOND DECLENSION (D2) 

<table>
 <tr><th>D2.1 Masculine</th><td><table><tr><td>τόπος</td><td>place</td></tr></table></td><th>D2.2 Neuter</th></tr>
 <tr>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><td>ἄνθρωπος</td><td>man, person</td></tr>
 <tr><td>θεός</td><td>God (god)</td></tr>
 <tr><td>λόγος</td><td>word/message</td></tr>
 <tr><td>νόμος</td><td>law</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 <td style="vertical-align:top;">
 <table>
 <tr><td>χρόνος</td><td>time</td></tr>
 <tr><td>οἶκος</td><td>house/household</td></tr>
 <tr><td>υἱός</td><td>son</td></tr>
 <tr><td>οὐρανός</td><td>heaven</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 <td style="vertical-align:top;">
 <table>
 <tr><td>προφήτης</td><td>work</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ὑποκριτής</td><td>gospel</td></tr>
 <tr><td>προφήτης</td><td>wood/tree</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ὑποκριτής</td><td>sabbath</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 </tr>
</table>

THIRD DECLENSION (D3)
<table><tr><th>D3.2 Feminine Vowel Stem</th><td><table><tr><th>D3.14 Masc/Fem -ων Stem</th><td>place</td></tr></table></td><th>D3.9 Neuter Consonant Stem</th></tr>
 <tr>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><td>δύναμις</td><td>power </td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 <td style="vertical-align:top;">
 <table>
 <tr><td>αἰών</td><td>age/world</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 <td style="vertical-align:top;">
 <table>
 <tr><td>ῥῆμα</td><td>word/object</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 </tr>
</table>




TWO: THE ARTICLE; 2ND DECLENSION; PRESENT ACTIVE FLEXION 29 
NOTE that all the words in each Paradigm (flexion group) have the same ending. If you are at all uncertain about what a "noun" is, look carefully at these examples and see (from their English meanings) what kind of words they are.
2.3 THE ARTICLE 
2.31 When Greek wants to indicate that a noun is definite it places a special word, ὁ, in front of it. This word is called the definite article or, more simply, just the article. The closest English equivalent is the word "the". Thus ὁ ἄνθρωπος means "the man" (in the sense of "person", "human being"), a definite man, the particular man, where the addressor or the addressee (or both) know which man is being referred to. 2.32 In contrast ἄνθρωπος means simply "a man" or "man"; and similarly for other Greek nouns. Greek has no indefinite article (English "a" or "an"), though where the Greek wishes to stress the indefiniteness of something it may use 21; "a certain", as in ἄνθρωπος 21g, "a certain man" (Luke 10:30). 
2.33 The article is an inflected word, changing its ending so that it always agrees with the noun to which it refers in number, gender and case. It therefore has a separate form for both singular and plural for each of the four cases, for each of the three genders — this means that it has twenty-four forms in all (see further, #A2.2). (Some of these forms are spelt the same as one another, but most of them are distinctive.) 
2.34 Frequently the article will be used with a person's name (especially if that person has already been mentioned earlier) to indicate that it is the person known to addressor and addressee. Thus, ὁ Ἰωάννης βλέπει τὸν Ἰησοῦν, which is translated as "John sees Jesus"; the articles ὁ in front of "John" (Ἰωάννης) and τόν in front of "Jesus" (Ἰησοῦν) are not translated. 
2.35 The feminine article is a paradigm for the First Declension (D1). This means that the pattern of endings for the feminine article is the same as for one large group of First Declension words, Paradigm D1.2, Feminine Consonant Stem words, a paradigm which includes five words from our lists in #2.29, γῆ, ζωή, φωνή, ψυχή and εἰρήνη. That is to say, the endings of these words decline exactly the same as the feminine article. 
2.36 There is a close similarity between the masculine and neuter flexions of the article and the masculine and neuter paradigms of the Second Declension. These paradigms are given here for ὁ κύριος, "the lord", and τὸ ἔργον, "the work, deed, action", together with the flexion of ὁ Ἰησοῦς, "Jesus". 
2.4 PARADIGMS OF THE ARTICLE AND SECOND DECLENSION NOUNS¹⁶ 
2.40 

<table>
 <tr><th>SINGULAR</th><th>MASC.</th><th>FEM.</th><th>NEUT.</th><th>  D2.1 MASCULINE</th><th>  D2.2 NEUTER</th><th>  D2.3 "JESUS"</th></tr>
 <tr><td>    Nominative</td><td style="text-align: center;">ὁ</td><td style="text-align: center;">ἡ</td><td style="text-align: center;">τό</td><td><table><tr><td style="width: 20px; text-align: right;">ὁ</td><td>κύριος</td></tr></table></td><td><table><tr><td style="width: 20px; text-align: right;">τὸ</td><td>ἔργον</td></tr></table></td><td><table><tr><td style="width: 20px; text-align: right;">ὁ</td><td>Ἰησοῦς</td></tr></table></td></tr>
 <tr><td>    Vocative</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td><table><tr><td style="width: 20px; text-align: right;"></td><td>κύριε</td></tr></table></td><td></td><td></td></tr>

 <tr><td>    Accusative</td><td style="text-align: center;">τόν</td><td style="text-align: center;">τήν</td><td style="text-align: center;">τό</td><td><table><tr><td style="width: 20px; text-align: right;">τὸν</td><td>κύριον</td></tr></table></td><td><table><tr><td style="width: 20px; text-align: right;">τὸ</td><td>ἔργον</td></tr></table></td><td><table><tr><td style="width: 20px; text-align: right;">τὸν</td><td>Ἰησοῦν</td></tr></table></td></tr>
 <tr><td>    Genitive</td><td style="text-align: center;">τοῦ</td><td style="text-align: center;">τῆς</td><td style="text-align: center;">τοῦ</td><td><table><tr><td style="width: 20px; text-align: right;">τοῦ</td><td>κυρίου</td></tr></table></td><td><table><tr><td style="width: 20px; text-align: right;">τοῦ</td><td>ἔργου</td></tr></table></td><td><table><tr><td style="width: 20px; text-align: right;">τοῦ</td><td>Ἰησοῦ</td></tr></table></td></tr>
 <tr><td>    Dative</td><td style="text-align: center;">τῷ</td><td style="text-align: center;">τῇ</td><td style="text-align: center;">τῷ</td><td><table><tr><td style="width: 20px; text-align: right;">τῷ</td><td>κυρίῳ</td></tr></table></td><td><table><tr><td style="width: 20px; text-align: right;">τῷ</td><td>ἔργῳ</td></tr></table></td><td><table><tr><td style="width: 20px; text-align: right;">τῷ</td><td>Ἰησοῦ</td></tr></table></td></tr>
 <tr><td>PLURAL</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td><table><tr><td style="width: 20px; text-align: right;"></td><td></td></tr></table></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><td>    Nominative</td><td style="text-align: center;">οἱ</td><td style="text-align: center;">αἱ</td><td style="text-align: center;">τά</td><td><table><tr><td style="width: 20px; text-align: right;">οἱ</td><td>κύριοι</td></tr></table></td><td><table><tr><td style="width: 20px; text-align: right;">τὰ</td><td>ἔργα</td></tr></table></td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><td>    Accusative</td><td style="text-align: center;">τούς</td><td style="text-align: center;">τάς</td><td style="text-align: center;">τά</td><td><table><tr><td style="width: 20px; text-align: right;">τοὺς</td><td>κυρίους</td></tr></table></td><td><table><tr><td style="width: 20px; text-align: right;">τὰ</td><td>ἔργα</td></tr></table></td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><td>    Genitive</td><td style="text-align: center;">τῶν</td><td style="text-align: center;">τῶν</td><td style="text-align: center;">τῶν</td><td><table><tr><td style="width: 20px; text-align: right;">τῶν</td><td>κυρίων</td></tr></table></td><td><table><tr><td style="width: 20px; text-align: right;">τῶν</td><td>ἔργων</td></tr></table></td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><td>    Dative</td><td style="text-align: center;">τοῖς</td><td style="text-align: center;">ταῖς</td><td style="text-align: center;">τοῖς</td><td><table><tr><td style="width: 20px; text-align: right;">τοῖς</td><td>κυρίοις</td></tr></table></td><td><table><tr><td style="width: 20px; text-align: right;">τοῖς</td><td>ἔργοις</td></tr></table></td><td></td></tr>
</table>

30 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
Features to note in these paradigms: 
2.41 The neuter nominative and accusative forms are the same as each other. This is true for all Greek neuter nouns (and adjectives and participles), both in the singular and the plural. 
2.42 The nominative and accusative neuter plurals end in -α, and all the genitive plurals end in -ων This is true for all neuter paradigms of all declensions. 
2.43 The masculine and neuter paradigms differ from each other only in the nominative and accusative cases — in the genitive and dative they are identical. 
2.44 The characteristic of the Greek dative case is the letter ι. NOTICE that in the singular of the First and Second Declensions it is written subscript (#1.56); but this subscript iota is still a part of the spelling of the word and must not be omitted.
2.45 The stem of the article is τ, except in the masculine and feminine nominative singular and plural, where it has become a rough breathing instead. 2.46 The Second Declension masculine singular has a separate, special form for the vocative. This is the first exception for us to note to the generalization that the vocative has the same form as the nominative (see #2.27).
2.47 The Second Declension (D2) is the most common noun group in the Greek New Testament, consisting of nouns which have their nominative singular ending in -ος and are masculine (372 New Testament words), or which end in -ον and are neuter (196 New Testament words).
2.5 INFLECTION OF ADJECTIVES AND PRONOUNS 
2.51 INFLECTION OF ADJECTIVES: An adjective, like the article, agrees with the noun to which it refers in number, gender, and case. The adjectives that have been listed so far (ἴδιος, μόνος and ὅλος — see #1.41) each therefore also have twenty-four forms. These correspond with the eight forms each of the Second Declension masculine, the First Declension feminine, and the Second Declension neuter. Thus the Greek word for "whole" (which is the source of our English word) has the three nominative singular forms ὅλος (masculine; declines like κύριος), ὅλη (feminine; declines like the feminine article) and ὅλον (neuter; declines like ἔργον). 
2.52 INFLECTION OF PRONOUNS: (a) Pronouns (#2.15) like αὐτός (#1.54) also have twenty-four forms, the three nominative singular forms being αὐτός (masculine, "he"), αὐτή (feminine, "she") and αὐτό (neuter, "it"). The possessive "his" is the genitive form, αὐτοῦ). 
    (b) The Nominative and Genitive first and second person pronouns are: 

<table>
 <tr><td></td><th>First Person</th><th>Second Person</th></tr>
 <tr>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><td> </td></tr>
 <tr><td>SINGULAR</td></tr>
 <tr><td>PLURAL</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><td>Nominative</td><td>Genitive</td></tr>
 <tr><td><table><tr><td>ἐγώ</td><td>I</td></tr></table></td><td><table><td>μου</td><td>my</td></table></td></tr>
 <tr><td><table><tr><td>ἡμεῖς</td><td>we</td></tr></table></td><td><table><td>ἡμῶν</td><td>our</td></table></td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><td>Nominative</td><td>Genitive</td></tr>
 <tr><td><table><tr><td>σύ</td><td>you</td></tr></table></td><td><table><td>σου</td><td>your</td></table></td></tr>
 <tr><td><table><tr><td>ὑμεῖς</td><td>you</td></tr></table></td><td><table><td>ὑμῶν</td><td>your</td></table></td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 </tr>
</table>

    (c) The genitive of a pronoun is placed after the word to which it refers: ὁ υἱός μου, "my son"; ὁ βασιλεὺς ὑμῶν, "your king". 
2.53 VOCABULARY LISTING: Adjectives and pronouns, like nouns, are listed in lexicons and vocabularies in their nominative singular form. Adjectives will normally be shown in the masculine, followed by the feminine and neuter endings, thus: ὅλος -η -ον (either with or 

TWO: THE ARTICLE; 2ND DECLENSION; PRESENT ACTIVE FLEXION 31 
without a hyphen in front of the endings). Pronouns are usually listed similarly. A noun is always listed in the nominative singular followed by either the full form of its genitive singular or just the ending of its genitive singular, as this allows the identification of its declension. This in turn is then followed by the indication of the noun's gender, either by "m", "f" or "n" respectively, or by giving the article that it takes. Thus the entry will appear as: κύριος, -ου, ὁ, or καρδία, -ας, ἡ 
2.6 PREPOSITIONS 
2.61 Many sentences contain nouns which are not the subject or object of the verb or related by the idea of "of" (genitive case) or "to" or "for" (dative case). For these nouns, their relationship to the rest of the sentence is usually shown through a preposition. A preposition is always located in front of the noun (or of the noun's article, if it has one) — hence the name, "pre-position", i.e. in the position in front of its noun. 
2.62 When a noun is used after a preposition in this way, it can never be nominative or vocative, but it can be either accusative, genitive or dative. These three cases which are used with prep-ositions are called the oblique cases as they are capable of being related obliquely (indirectly, that is, through the preposition) to the rest of the sentence; this is in contrast to the nominative case, which is called the direct case. 
2.63 Each Greek preposition takes or selects or governs either one particular case, or two cases, or all three oblique cases. The preposition has a different meaning with each of its different cases, if it can take more than one. Therefore it is the preposition together with the case it governs which gives the meaning in a particular sentence. This is the concept of collocation. Collocation means literally "located together". It refers to a group of two or more words which work together with each other to give the meaning, and are therefore taken together as a single unit of meaning in a sentence. 
2.64 Most prepositions have a central or core meaning (which is the usual one), and a number of extended meanings, which are all part of its total area of meaning (see #0.2). 
2.65 New prepositions will be introduced in each Lesson. They must always be learnt together with the case (or cases) that they take. The following three prepositions, and the case that each takes, should be learnt this lesson: 
(a) ἐν: Takes the dative. Used 2,713 times in the New Testament. Core meaning: "in". Extended meanings: "within, among, at, by means of, with". 
(b) ἐκ/ἐξ (see #1.75): Takes the genitive. Used 915 times in the New Testament. Core meaning: "out of" (indicating source or origin, or previous position). Extended meanings: "from amongst, away from, belonging to, a member of". 
(c) πρό: Takes the genitive. Used 47 times in the New Testament. Core meaning: "before"; used both of time (= "prior to") and place (= "in front of"). 
2.66 Thus when a word that is declined (noun, pronoun, adjective, or participle) is found in an oblique case (#2.62), it will be in that case for one of two reasons: either 
(a) it has the inherent meaning of that case (see #2.24; #2.26): in which circumstance you must give it that meaning in translating it; or 
(b) it is following a preposition which has selected the case it is in (see #2.63): in which circumstance the meaning will be the meaning which the preposition has when used with that particular case. 
(cᵃᵈᵈᵉᵈ ˢᵘᵇˢᵉᶜᵗᶦᵒⁿ ˢᴳᴴ)or, it conventionally acts as the object of a verb - usually this applies to the accusativeforthe direct object, and the dative for the indirect object, but for some verbs the genitive or dative acts as what will be translated as the object. 
2.67 Thus: σοι is the dative singular of "you" and therefore has the meaning "to you" or "for you" (#2.24). However, the preposition ἐν, "in", takes or selects the dative case: so ἔν σοι means "in

32 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
you" and DOES NOT mean "in to you" or "in for you" — in this circumstance the dative case is not being used to mean "to" or "for" because the dative case is selected by the preposition ἐν for whatever word ἐν governs. This is what is meant by saying (#2.65) that ἐν "takes the dative".
2.68 To find out which of these two possibilities (#2.66) applies when you come across an oblique case: look in front of the word(s) in the oblique case to see if there is a preposition there which governs that case. If so, then that preposition is the reason for the use of the oblique case, and the meaning of the words is the meaning of that preposition in conjunction with that case. If there is no preposition in front of the oblique case, then the word in the oblique case will have the inherent meaning of that case (ᵃᵈᵈᵉᵈ ˢᴳᴴ or it should be read with the verb in the phrase as a single unit). 
2.69 PREPOSITION COLLOCATION RULE Because a preposition has a different meaning with each of the different cases which it can take, you can only know what that preposition means in a given sentence if you take it in conjunction with the word(s) that it governs in the oblique case. That is, a preposition is taken in collocation (#2.63) with what it governs. Therefore the preposition collocation rule is: Always read a preposition in conjunction with what it governs in a sentence, and translate the preposition and what it governs as a single unit of meaning in that sentence. 
2.7 THE VERB 
2.71 The verb is the word in a sentence which makes a statement about the subject or which transfers an idea or an action from the subject to an object (some other person or thing). In English it can consist of more than one word; in Greek it usually is a single word. 
2.72 (a) In its usual type of mode or mood¹⁷ — the indicative — the verb can make an affirmation ("Jesus wept"), or ask a question ("Are you the Christ?"). It has these other modes also: (b) Make a request or give a command (imperative mode: "Lord, save us"; "Take and eat this"); (c) Make a statement about possibilities (subjunctive mode: "If anyone would be my disciple . ."). (d) The infinitive is also treated as a mode ("I will make you to become fishers of men . ."). These four — indicative, imperative, subjunctive and infinitive — are the ones normally used. (e) We meet the rare optative mode in #10.5. 
2.73 Like a pronoun (see #2.25), a verb indicates person (first, second or third) and we have noted earlier (#2.17) that it agrees with the number (singular or plural) of its subject (apart from some specific exceptions).
2.74 Like other inflected words, a verb consists of a lexal (see #1.92) and affixes, that is, morphs added to the lexal to indicate the grammatical information about a word in a particular sentence. An affix added at the beginning of a lexal is a prefix, within a lexal is an infix, and at the end of a lexal is a suffix. Most grammatical morphs are suffixes. By means of these morphs, a verb indicates its five features: person, number, tense (including time and/or aspect), mode, and voice. To parse a verb form is to state each of these features about it, in the order given here, followed by the lexical form (the form of the word which is given in a lexicon) and the word's meaning. Thus, λύομεν: first person plural present (durative) indicative active of λύω, "I loose". 
2.75 The inflected forms of a verb that indicate person and number are grouped together into a flexion and (as for a noun) a pattern flexion is called a paradigm. Related paradigms for verbs are known as a conjugation, and setting out the pattern of inflected forms for a particular verb is called conjugating it. 

TWO: THE ARTICLE; 2ND DECLENSION; PRESENT ACTIVE FLEXION 33 
2.76 The endings of a Greek verb which indicate the person and number of its subject had their origin long ago in the attachment of an unemphatic personal pronoun as a suffix to the stem of the verb (see historical grammarian A. T. Robertson, page 149: listed, Appendix F). This suffix can be referred to as a pronoun suffix. For example: stem φα- or φη- means "say", and the pronoun suffix -μι means "I", so (φημί means "I say". Similarly the stem of the verb "be" is ἐσ- and λυ- means "loose", while the pronoun suffix -μεν means "we". Thus ἐσμεν means "we are" and λύομεν means "we loose". 
2.77 Notice that in λύομεν a "joining vowel", -ο-, has been placed between λυ- and -μεν. In some other forms in a flexion this "joining vowel" is -ε-. Later on [#4.44(b)] we shall be learning about the role of this vowel in the verb; for the present, in the forms we are now learning, this vowel is a morph which has a "neutral" influence in a word; that is, it does not affect the word's meaning. It can therefore be called the neutral morph. For the time being it is convenient to take the neutral morph together with the pronoun morph as the "ending" of the verb. 
2.78 As the Greek language evolved over the centuries prior to the "classical era" (600-300 BC), there developed two basic paradigm patterns (that is to say, conjugations) for Greek verbs in the present tense. The older of these has retained the original -,ut pronoun ending of its form for the first person singular present indicative active (which is the lexical form of a verb, the form by which it is listed in a lexicon), and is therefore often referred to as the -ΜΙ Conjugation. In the evolution of the later, Omega Conjugation, the -μι has been lost and in the first person singular its -ο- vowel, the neutral morph, has lengthened into omega, this lengthening itself indicating the pronoun "I". 
2.79 We meet the -μι conjugation in due course (#7.7). The omega conjugation, which we shall look at now, is by far the more common conjugation in New Testament Greek. 
2.8 PARADIGMS OF THE PRESENT INDICATIVE ACTIVE 
2.81 The verb λύω "I loose" is the pattern verb for many hundreds of other New Testament verbs. Adding these endings to other verb lexals:

<table>
 <tr><td> </td><td> </td><th>Lexal/Ending</th><th>Meaning</th><th>"I see"</th><th>"I speak/say"</th></tr>
 <tr><th>SINGULAR </th><th>1 </th><td>  λύω</td><td>I loose/I am loosing </td><td>βλέπ-ω</td><td>    λέγ-ω</td></tr>
 <tr><th></th><th>2 </th><td>  λύεις</td><td>you loose/you are loosing </td><td>βλέπ-εις</td><td>    λέγ-εις</td></tr>
 <tr><th></th><th>3 </th><td>  λύει</td><td>he/she/it looses/he/she/it is loosing </td><td>βλέπ-ει</td><td>    λέγ-ει</td></tr>
 <tr><th>PLURAL </th><th>1 </th><td>  λύομεν</td><td>we loose/we are loosing </td><td>βλέπ-ομεν</td><td>    λέγ-ομεν</td></tr>
 <tr><th></th><th>2 </th><td>  λύετε</td><td>you loose/you are loosing </td><td>βλέπ-ετε</td><td>    λέγ-ετε</td></tr>
 <tr><th></th><th>3 </th><td>  λύουσι(ν)</td><td>they loose/they are loosing </td><td>βλέπ-ουσι(ν)</td><td>    λέγ-ουσι(ν)</td></tr>
</table>

2.82 POINTS TO NOTE: (a) NOTE that the ending for each form of the verb consists of the neutral morph (-ο- or -ε-) plus the pronoun suffix. For the first person singular, the pronoun suffix is not an additive morph (something added to the word), but the fact of the lengthening of the neutral morph -ο- into -ω. This is called a process morph": the morph consists of what is being done to something that is already there in a word form; that is, the morph is a process of change applied to a morph that is already part of the word form. (b) NOTE that the -ει ending of the third person singular does not differentiate gender but can mean "he" or "she" or "it" — it is necessary to decide which pronoun to use according to the context. (If in doubt, translate as "he".) (c) NOTE that the third person plural form, λύουσι(ν), has movable nu (see #1.75). 

34 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
(d) NOTE that to find the lexal of an omega verb, you simply remove the -ω. To this lexal you then add whichever ending is needed. You can thus take the endings of λύω and add them to the lexal of any other omega verb, as in the examples of βλέπω and λέγω, above. Translate into Greek: "We see"; "They are saying", "You (singular) speak". 
See the further comments on these forms to be found in #A2.34 to #A2.39. 
2.83 INTERNAL SUBJECT: We have seen (#2.76) that each verb form already contains its own subject, which is an unemphatic personal pronoun. Thus the subject of λέγομεν, "we are saying", is -μεν, "we". That is to say, each verb form already has, as part of it, an internal subject. If the verb is first or second person then that internal subject will be "I" or "we", or "you" singular or plural, as the case may be. If the verb is third person singular, then as the pronoun suffix does not indicate gender, the subject can be translated "he", "she", or "it", as the context requires; if the verb is third person plural, its internal subject is "they". Thus in the sentence (Luke 7:33) Δαιμόνιον ἔχει, the third person singular verb ἔχει will be translated "he has".
2.84 EXTERNAL SUBJECT: When the verb is third person (singular or plural) it will frequently have with it a separate word as the subject (the topic about which the verb is making a comment —see #2.11). This separate word will be in the nominative case: this is how you will recognize it as the subject of the verb. There may well also be an article and/or adjective with the subject word, all of them in the nominative case (that will be how you know they collocate together, that is, belong together as one unit of the sentence). This subject (consisting of one, two, or more words) is an external subject — it is external to the verb. When an external subject occurs in a clause, it takes over the role of subject from the internal subject, and therefore the internal subject is NOT TRANSLATED. Consider the sentence (John 18:38), Λέγει αὐτῷ ὁ Πιλάτος: the verb form λέγει is third person singular of λέγω, and therefore means "he/she/it says"; but there is an external subject (after the verb, in the nominative case), ὁ Πιλάτος. Thus the correct translation is "Pilate says to him" (and NOT: "Pilate he says to him"). 
2.85 "EMERGENCY USE ONLY": As there is frequently an external subject in the clause, we can see that the internal subject will not very often need to be translated. We should look on the internal subject as being "for emergency use only" — that is, only to be used when there is no external subject in the clause. We start by searching for the external subject, and only use the internal subject if there is no other. Consider the sentence (John 19:14), καὶ λέγει τοῖς Ἰουδαίοις: again the verb form is λέγει"he/she/it says". But there is no external subject for this verb, so the internal subject will be needed. The context shows that out of "he/she/it" the right subject is "he", giving us the translation "and he says to the Jews". 
2.86 EMPHATIC PRONOUNS: We have seen (#2.83) that there is no separate word actually needed with a Greek verb for "I", "we", or "you", because these pronouns are part of the verb form as an internal subject. But there are emphatic pronouns for use with the first and second person (and third person) forms of the verb (#1.95). NOTE: These emphatic pronouns can be used with any verb. So when one of these pronouns occurs, it is an external subject, and is used as a way of indicating emphasis. Compare the shade of difference in meaning between simply saying, Εἶ ὁ Χριστός, "You are the Christ" (without any special emphasis), and Σὺ εἶ ὁ Χριστός, "You are the Christ" (emphasis on the "you"). Can you see the difference in meaning between these two sentences? Thus in the sentence (John 18:37) Σὺ λέγεις , ὅτι βασιλεύς εἰμι [ἐγώ], "You say that I am a king", there is an emphatic pronoun for "you" (σύ), but the emphatic pronoun for "I" (ἐγώ) is not used. So the "you" is emphasized, but not the "I". When translating, always indicate this emphasis by underlining each emphatic pronoun in your translation. 

TWO: THE ARTICLE; 2ND DECLENSION; PRESENT ACTIVE FLEXION 35 
2.87 Where Knowing Greek Makes a Difference: The degree of emphasis intended by the author will vary from one context to another, but sometimes the shades of meaning from emphatic pronouns can be quite significant. If you know Greek, you will recognize the emphatic pronouns, and pick up on these shades of meaning. An example of this is the emphatic I in the great "I am" statements by the Lord in the Gospels and Revelation (see L2/B2 [Sentence B2 of this Lesson]). Then, note the contrast in emphasis in "You have faith, and I have works" (L2/B3), and in "You are a disciple of that fellow, but we are disciples of Moses" (L3/B15). There is similar contrast in emphasis in the conversation between John (ἐγώ, I) and the priests and Levites, who refer to him as σύ (John 1:21-23; L3/1330). And note the significance of the emphatic "I" in Matthew 10:16 (L3/1323): "You are being sent out as sheep in the midst of wolves, but I am the one who is sending you" [and that will make all the difference!].
2.88 A SECOND ACCENT TO NOTE: Once before (see #A1.37) we needed to note an accent. In this Lesson we have a second instance where an accent is important. In the verb εἰμί, the second person singular form is εἶ. Note the use of the circumflex over the smooth breathing on the iota. The accent distinguishes this verb form from εἰ, with a smooth breathing but no accent, which means "if".
2.89 ASKING A QUESTION: The paradigms given for εἰμί (#1.95) and λύω (#2.81) are paradigms for the Indicative Mode, that is, where a verb is stating something as a fact. The Indicative also includes the Interrogative, that is, when a verb is asking a question. Often the Greek wording of a statement and a question will be the same. How then will you know that a question is being asked? In this book, and in your edition of the Greek New Testament, this is shown by the use of the question mark (;) at the end of a sentence. NOTE: The first step in understanding the meaning of a Greek sentence is to check whether or not it is a question.
2.9 WORD ORDER 
2.91 Greek sentence order can differ considerably from that of English. Word order is used in English to indicate the relationship of the words in the sentence: consider the difference in meaning, indicated solely by word order, between "The man ate a large fish" and "A large fish ate the man". In contrast, Greek indicates case (subject, object, and other relationships) by its word endings, and the position of a word in a clause or sentence is frequently used to indicate emphasis. 
2.92 EMPHATIC POSITIONS: The beginning of a sentence is an emphatic position, and the most important word in a sentence may be placed first to give it emphasis. At times in English also we may put a word first in a sentence, out of its usual order, so as to place emphasis upon it. Consider these two examples from the NIV where the object of the verb has been placed first: "The poor you will always have with you" (Matthew 26:11); "This command I received from my Father" (John 10:14). Similarly, other words can be placed first for emphasis: "Never man spoke like this man" (see John 7:46, AV). Indeed, in Greek a noun in this emphatic position can be considered definite enough not to be given the article. Thus in Ἀρχὴ τοῦ εὐαγγελίου [see L 1/A9 (Lesson One, Selection A9)], 'Aprj is translated in English as "The beginning". Again, a word can also be emphasized in Greek by being held back to the end of a clause or sentence. 
2.93 NOUN SUBJECT: When the subject is a noun, it is normal for it to be placed after the verb to which it refers — it will be recognized as being the subject as it is nominative case, and will usually have the article, also in the nominative case. (NOTE: a pronoun subject may be found placed anywhere in a clause, and frequently comes in front of the verb.) 
2.94 THE GREEK NEGATIVE: The negative "not" in Greek is οὐ before a consonant, οὐκ before a vowel or diphthong with a smooth breathing, and οὐχ before a vowel or diphthong with a 

36 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
rough breathing (compare English use of "a"/"an"). In Greek the negative usually functions very closely together with the verb, and indeed they can be regarded as filling the one (verb) slot in the sentence. The negative comes in front of the verb to which it refers, whereas in English it will be placed after an auxiliary verb ("have", "do", etc.). Compare the order of ἐγὼ οὐκ εἰμί, with the English word order, "I am not". Greek normally puts the negative with the verb, whereas English style most frequently would take it with the noun: thus Greek will say, Ἄρτους οὐκ ἔχομεν (note how the negative collocates with or goes with the verb), while the English translation will be, "We have no bread" (the negative going with the noun, rather than "We do not have bread"). 
2.95 COMPLEMENT: The word (or words) coming after the verb "to be" to complete the thought is called the complement (that is to say, the "completement"). Its customary position in Greek is prior to the verb. Thus Kijptog kowtv 6 viol roc) dtvepa57wv means "the son of man is lord". Note: (a) that the complement has no article (it is usual for the complement not to have an article), and (b) that the complement is in the nominative case (because Etui is a verb of equivalence — that is, the complement equates with [is the same person/thing as] the subject). 
2.96 CONJUNCTIONS WHICH ARE NEVER FIRST: Most Greek sentences commence with a conjunction, a "joining word" (#2.18), such as καί, "and", ἀλλά, "but", εἰ, "if", ὅτι, "because, that", πόθεν, "whence? where from?", ὡς, "like, as", καθώς*, "just as"; and so on. However, there are a small number of conjunctions which can never be placed first in a Greek clause or sentence. The most common of these are the conjunctions δέ ("and", "but"), τέ, ("and [so]"), γάρ ("for"), and οὖν ("then", "therefore"). The translation of δέ, τέ and γάρ needs to be placed first in their clause or sentence when rendering them into English. 
2.97 GENITIVES AND ADJECTIVES: 
    (a) A genitive regularly comes after the noun to which it refers. Thus οἱ υἱοὶ τοῦ πονηροῦ, "the sons of the Evil One". This applies also to the Greek possessive pronouns such as "my" and "your": in translation into English these will need to be placed in front of their noun. Thus: ὁ βασιλεὺς ὑμῶν, to be translated as, "your king". (If a Greek genitive is placed in front of what it refers to, this would be a change of word order indicating emphasis — #2.91.) 
    (b) An adjective can come between the article and its noun. Note the position of the dative σῷ of the adjective σός, "your" (singular), ἐν τῷ σῷ ἀγρῷ, "in your field" (L2/B25). It can also come after the noun: but in that case the noun's article must be repeated in front of the adjective. Thus, in L2/B14: ὁ υἱός μου ὁ ἀγαπητός, "my beloved son" — more literally, "my son, the beloved one". 
    (c) An adjectival prepositional phrase can be used in the same way, after the noun it refers to, with the noun's article repeated. Thus, in L2/B5: ὁ ἄρτος ὁ ἐκ τοῦ οὐρανοῦ, "the bread out of the heaven" (the repeated article is not translated). 
2.98 INDECLINABLE WORDS: Some words (mostly foreign names) are indeclinable, and will be recognized as genitive (or one of the other cases) only by their position, and the sense of the sentence. Thus: ὁ θεὸς Ἰακώβ, "the God of Jacob" (L2/B20). Ἰακώβ, "Jacob", is in the normal genitive position, after the noun to which it refers, and therefore is translated here as "of Jacob". (When an article is used with an indeclinable name — see #2.33 — this will enable its case to be known: for example, John 4:5, ὃ ἔδωκεν Ἰακὼβ [τῷ] Ἰωσὴφ, "which Jacob gave to Joseph".) 
2.99 NORMAL GREEK WORD ORDER: For fuller detail, see #A2.6. In summary: Some Greek sentences, especially when the subject is a pronoun, can have a word order quite close to that of English. And at times normal Greek word order will be altered, especially to indicate emphasis. But for many Greek clauses and sentences we can recognize a basic pattern of normal Greek word order. This basic pattern for Greek is: conjunction, complement/direct object, verb, subject. Moreover, as we have seen, a genitive will regularly follow the noun to which it refers.


TWO: THE ARTICLE; 2ND DECLENSION; PRESENT ACTIVE FLEXION 37 
Other words and phrases will be fitted into this basic pattern. Now, the basic word order pattern for English is: conjunction, subject, verb, complement/direct object, indirect object. Note then: In translating from Greek, you must locate each grammatical unit in the Greek sentence, and place it in its right position for English order. That is: Be sure that you translate not only Greek words into English words, but also Greek order into English order. 
ASSIGNMENTS ON LESSON TWO 
It is important to use your study time to learn the paradigms set for the Lesson, to read the relevant section of Appendix A for each Lesson, and to use your Workbook to see that you have understood the grammar that you need to know. But: spend most of your available study time for each Lesson working on translating the Selections from the Greek New Testament — these are the practical examples, from the New Testament, of the grammar covered in the Lesson.
1. PARADIGMS FOR LEARNING: The paradigms which now need to be learnt by heart are: 2. The Article (#2.40) 3. The Present Indicative Active of λύω (#2.81). LEARN these paradigms down the columns. Write them out from memory. (Use the Practice Sheet in your Workbook to assist you with this.) Check your work against this book and make sure that you have all the forms word perfect, and correctly spelt. NOTE: you should spend five minutes daily in learning the set paradigms for each Lesson. Read a paradigm aloud once or twice, then close your eyes and say it aloud again. Follow this procedure a second time. Then go on to the next paradigm. Go through one or two paradigms each day in this way, then review all of them together at the end of each week.
2. LEARNING THE SECOND DECLENSION: Compare the masculine and neuter flexion of the article with the paradigms for the Second Declension, κύριος and ἔργον. Learn to recognize the forms of the Second Declension by noting similarities and differences between their endings and the article. 
3. APPENDIX: READ CAREFULLY the comments and guidelines which are set out in the Appendix, #A2. Note in particular the Principles of Translation (#A2.4) and Translation Techniques (#A2.5), and be guided by these in your work. 
4. WORKBOOK: ANSWER THE QUESTIONS in your Workbook about this Lesson. 
5. TRANSLATION EXERCISES A AND B: Do the Translation Exercises which follow. NOTE: To translate these sentences you will need to use the prepositions (#2.65) and the paradigms set for learning this Lesson, together with Eipi and the words on your Vocabulary Cards from Lesson One. The meanings of all other words that will be needed are given below, next to the first sentence in which each new word is used. (Some alternative meanings for these words are given in brackets.) 
6. VOCABULARY CARDS: Write out Vocabulary Cards for all the new words as you are introduced to them this Lesson, in the top lefthand corner of each side of each Card writing 2 (for a word introduced in Lesson Two). Add these cards to your collection, and place them all in Greek alphabetical order. You will also be able to add extra information to some existing Cards. Put different meanings for the same Greek word on the one Card. On Cards for prepositions, be sure to put the case taken as well as the meaning. Look words up on your Vocabulary Cards as you need them. Seek to remember each word as you look it up and use it. 

38 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
A. TRANSLATION FROM ENGLISH INTO GREEK 
(This may be done as an exercise in class at the end of the Lesson, or set as an assignment.) 

<table>
 <tr><td>A1.</td><td>Jesus is the tree of life.</td><td>"of life": see #1.94</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A2.</td><td>It is the voice of a prophet.</td><td>"prophet", genitive singular: προφήτου</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A3.</td><td>I (emphatic) am a teacher of the Jews.</td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><td>A4.</td><td>This is God's work.</td><td>"this", neuter singular: τοῦτο</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A5.</td><td>Is this the place?</td><td>"this", masculine singular: *οὗτος</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A6.</td><td>The prophet sees earth and heaven.</td><td>re accusative of "earth": see #2.35</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A7.</td><td>God sees the soul of a man.</td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><td>A8.</td><td>Jesus speaks the words of life.</td><td>"word": *λόγος</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A9.</td><td>The hypocrite does not speak.</td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><td>A10.</td><td>This is a message out of heaven.</td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><td>A11.</td><td>You (plural, emphatic) are breaking the law of God.</td><td>"breaking": loosing, *λύω</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A12.</td><td>Men are saying, "Jesus is the Christ."</td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><td>A13.</td><td>God says to the Christ, "You (emphatic) are my Son."</td><td>"my": μου (after the noun it refers to)</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A14.</td><td>The Son speaks words out of the heart.</td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><td>A15.</td><td>We (emphatic) say, "This is the gospel of the Lord."</td><td></td></tr>
</table>


B. SELECTIONS FROM THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
(NOTE: These are selections from the verses listed; only a part of the verse is being set for you to read at this stage.) 


<table>
 <tr><td> </td><th>SELECTION</th><th>NOTES AND NEW WORDS</th></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B1.</td><td>Ἡμεῖς νόμον ἔχομεν. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 19:7)</td><td>*ἔχω: I have</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B2.</td><td>Ἐγώ εἰμι τὸ Ἄλφα καὶ τὸ Ὦ, λέγει Κύριος ὁ θεός. (ΑΠΟΚΑΛΥΨΙΣ ΙΩΑΝΝΟΥ 1:8)</td><td>*καί: and (also, even); *λέγω: I say/speak/tell</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B3.</td><td>Σὺ πίστιν ἔχεις, κἀγὼ ἔργα ἔχω· (ΙΑΚΩΒΟΥ 2:18)</td><td>*πίστις, -εως, ἡ: faith [see #A2.57]; *κἀγώ = καὶ ἐγώ</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B4.</td><td>Ἄρτους οὐκ ἔχομεν. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΡΚΟΝ 8:16, margin)</td><td>[See #2.94.]</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B5.</td><td>Οὗτός ἐστιν ὁ ἄρτος ὁ ἐκ τοῦ οὐρανοῦ καταβαίνων (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 6:50)</td><td>*ἐκ: out of (+gen) [See #2.65; #2.97(c)]; καταβαίνων: coming down</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B6.</td><td>καὶ λέγετε, Δαιμόνιον ἔχει· (ΚΑΤΑ ΛΟΥΚΑΝ 7:33)</td><td>*δαιμόνιον, -ου, τό: demon</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B7.</td><td>Σὺ λέγεις , ὅτι βασιλεύς εἰμι ἐγώ. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 18:37)</td><td>*ὅτι: that (because; " [#1.84])</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B8.</td><td>ὁ Πιλάτος λέγει τῷ Ἰησοῦ, Πόθεν εἶ σύ; (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 19:8-9)</td><td>Πιλᾶτος, -ου, ὁ: Pilate; πόθεν: whence, where from?</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B9.</td><td>ὁ Πέτρος λέγει αὐτῷ, Σὺ εἶ ὁ χριστός. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΡΚΟΝ 8:29)</td><td>Πέτρος, -ου, ὁ: Peter; αὐτῷ: to him</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B10.</td><td>Ἀκούεις τί οὗτοι λέγουσιν; (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΤΘΑΙΟΝ 21:16)</td><td>*ἀκούω: I hear; τί: what? (why?) οὗτοι: these (men, people)</td></tr>
</table>


TWO: THE ARTICLE; 2ND DECLENSION; PRESENT ACTIVE FLEXION 39

<table>
 <tr><td> </td><th>SELECTION</th><th>NOTES AND NEW WORDS</th></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B11.</td><td>Σαμαρείτης εἶ σύ, καὶ δαιμόνιον ἔχεις;
 Ἐγὼ δαιμόνιον οὐκ ἔχω. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 8:48-49)</td><td>Σαμαρείτης, -ου, ὁ: a Samaritan</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B12.</td><td>Σὺ εἶ Σίμων ὁ υἱὸς Ἰωνᾶ. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 1:42)</td><td>Σίμων: Simon; Ἰωνᾶς, -ᾶ, ὁ: Jonas</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B13.</td><td>Λέγει αὐτῷ ὁ Πιλάτος, Τί ἐστιν ἀλήθεια; (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 18:38)</td><td>*ἀλήθεια, -ας, ἡ: truth</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B14.</td><td>καὶ φωνὴ ἐγένετο ἐκ τῶν οὐρανῶν, Σὺ εἶ ὁ υἱός μου ὁ ἀγαπητός. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΡΚΟΝ 1:11)</td><td>ἐγένετο: [there] came, became; μου: my; *ἀγαπητός -ή -όν: beloved</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B15.</td><td>Κἀγὼ δέ σοι λέγω, ὅτι σὺ εἶ Πέτρος. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 16:18)</td><td>*καί: also (and); *δέ: and (but) [#2.96]; σοι: to you (singular)</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B16.</td><td>Λέγει αὐτῷ ἡ γυνή, Κύριε, θεωρῶ ὅτι προφήτης εἶ σύ. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 4:19)</td><td>*γυνή, -αικος, ἡ: woman; κύριε: Sir; θεωρῶ: I perceive, observe</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B17.</td><td>καὶ λέγει τοῖς Ἰουδαίοις, Ἴδε, ὁ βασιλεὺς ὑμῶν. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 19:14)</td><td>Ἰουδαῖος -αία -ον: a Jew; ἴδε: behold</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B18.</td><td>ὁ Ἰωάννης ... βλέπει τὸν Ἰησοῦν ... καὶ λέγει, Ἴδε ὁ ἀμνὸς τοῦ θεοῦ. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 1:29)</td><td>*βλέπω: I see; ἀμνός, -οῦ, ὁ: lamb</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B19.</td><td>Καὶ ἰδού, φωνὴ ἐκ τῶν οὐρανῶν, λέγουσα, Οὗτός ἐστιν ὁ υἱός μου ὁ ἀγαπητός. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 3:17)</td><td>*ἰδού: behold; λέγουσα: saying (participle)</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B20.</td><td>Ἐγώ εἰμι ὁ θεὸς Ἀβραάμ, καὶ ὁ θεὸς Ἰσαάκ, καὶ ὁ θεὸς Ἰακώβ. Οὐκ ἔστιν ὁ θεὸς θεὸς νεκρῶν, ἀλλὰ ζώντων. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 22:32)</td><td>Ἀβραάμ: Abraham; Ἰσαάκ: Isaac; Ἰακώβ: Jacob; νεκρῶν: of those who are dead; *ἀλλά: but; ζώντων: of those who are living</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B21.</td><td>ἔργα τῶν χειρῶν σού εἰσιν οἱ οὐρανοί· (ΠΡΟΣ ΕΒΡΑΙΟΥΣ 1:10)</td><td>*χείρ, χειρός, ἡ: hand; σου: your (singular)</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B22.</td><td>Ἰδού, ἐγὼ ἀποστέλλω τὸν ἄγγελόν μου πρὸ προσώπου σου. (KATA MAPKON 1:2)</td><td>*ἀποστέλλω: I send; *ἄγγελος, -ου, ὁ: messenger (angel); *πρό (+gen): before; *πρόσωπον, -ου, τό: face</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B23.</td><td>καὶ ἰδού, φωνὴ ἐκ τῆς νεφέλης, λέγουσα, Οὗτός ἐστιν ὁ υἱός μου ὁ ἀγαπητός. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 17:5)</td><td>νεφέλη, ἡ: cloud</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B24.</td><td>κύριός ἐστιν ὁ υἱὸς τοῦ ἀνθρώπου καὶ τοῦ σαββάτου. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΡΚΟΝ 2:28)</td><td>*κύριος, -ου, ὁ: lord; *καί: also, even (and)</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B25.</td><td>Κύριε, οὐχὶ καλὸν σπέρμα ἔσπειρας ἐν τῷ σῷ ἀγρῷ; Πόθεν οὖν ἔχει ζιζάνια; (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 13:27)</td><td>*οὐχί: not; *καλός -ή -όν: good; σπέρμα, -ατος, τό: seed; ἔσπειρας: you (sg) sowed; *ἐν (+dat): in; σός σή σόν: your (sing); ἀγρός, -οῦ, ὁ: field; *οὖν: then, so; ζιζάνιον, -ου, τό: darnel (weed resembling wheat)</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B26.</td><td>Ὁ σπείρων τὸ καλὸν σπέρμα ἐστὶν ὁ υἱὸς τοῦ ἀνθρώπου· ὁ δὲ ἀγρός ἐστιν ὁ κόσμος· τὸ δὲ καλὸν σπέρμα, οὗτοί εἰσιν οἱ υἱοὶ τῆς βασιλείας· τὰ δὲ ζιζάνιά εἰσιν οἱ υἱοὶ τοῦ πονηροῦ· (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 13:37-38)</td><td>ὁ σπείρων: the one who sows; *βασιλεία, -ας, ἡ: kingdom (reign); *πονηρός -ά -όν: evil, the Evil One</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B27.</td><td>Καὶ φωνὴ ἐγένετο ἐκ τῆς νεφέλης, λέγουσα, Οὗτός ἐστιν ὁ υἱός μου ὁ ἀγαπητός (var. ἐκλελεγμένος). (ΚΑΤΑ ΛΟΥΚΑΝ 9:35)</td><td> ἐκλελεγμένος: chosen [one]</td></tr>
</table>

<hr>
</div>

<div id="L3" class="Lesson">
LESSON THREE 
FIRST DECLENSION AND SECOND AORIST ACTIVE 
3.1 COMPLETE PARADIGMS FOR THE FIRST DECLENSION (D1) 
3.11 In Lesson Two, the feminine form of the article introduced us to the First Declension (D1). The pattern of the article is in fact only one of four basic paradigms for this declension — the endings differ slightly according to the nature of the last letter of the stem to which they are being added, and according to whether the word is masculine or feminine gender (there are no neuter words of the First Declension). There is also a mixed or hybrid feminine paradigm, which changes from one to another of the two basic feminine patterns. These five First Declension paradigms are set out here: 


<table>
 <tr><th> </th><th>FEMININE NOUNS</th><th>MASCULINE NOUNS</th></tr>
<tr>
<td>
<table>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr><td>   </td></tr>
<tr><td>Singular</td></tr>
<tr><td>  Nominative</td></tr>
<tr><td>  Vocative</td></tr>
<tr><td>  Accusative</td></tr>
<tr><td>  Genitive</td></tr>
<tr><td>  Dative</td></tr>
<tr><td>Plural</td></tr>
<tr><td>  Nominative</td></tr>
<tr><td>  Accusative</td></tr>
<tr><td>  Genitive</td></tr>
<tr><td>  Dative</td></tr>
</table>
</td>
<td>
<table>
 <tr><th>D1.2 c stem</th><th>D1.1 ριε stem</th><th>D1.3 σ stem</th></tr>
 <tr><td>voice</td><td>heart</td><td>glory</td></tr>
 <tr><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
 <tr><td>φωνή</td><td>καρδία</td><td>δόξα</td></tr>
 <tr><td>φωνή</td><td>καρδία</td><td>δόξα</td></tr>
 <tr><td>φωνήν</td><td>καρδίαν</td><td>δόξαν</td></tr>
 <tr><td>φωνῆς</td><td>καρδίας</td><td>δόξης</td></tr>
 <tr><td>φωνῇ</td><td>καρδίᾳ</td><td>δόξῃ</td></tr>
 <tr><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
 <tr><td>φωναί</td><td>καρδίαι</td><td>δόξαι</td></tr>
 <tr><td>φωνάς</td><td>καρδίας</td><td>δόξας</td></tr>
 <tr><td>φωνῶν</td><td>καρδιῶν</td><td>δοξῶν</td></tr>
 <tr><td>φωναῖς</td><td>καρδίαις</td><td>δόξαις</td></tr>
</table>
</td>
<td>
<table>
 <tr><th>D1.5 c stem</th><th>D1.4 ριε stem</th></tr>
 <tr><td>disciple</td><td>young man</td></tr>
 <tr><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
 <tr><td>μαθητής</td><td>νεανίας</td></tr>
 <tr><td>μαθητά</td><td>νεανία</td></tr>
 <tr><td>μαθητήν</td><td>νεανίαν</td></tr>
 <tr><td>μαθητοῦ</td><td>νεανίου</td></tr>
 <tr><td>μαθητῇ</td><td>νεανίᾳ</td></tr>
 <tr><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
 <tr><td>μαθηταί</td><td>νεανίαι</td></tr>
 <tr><td>μαθητάς</td><td>νεανίας</td></tr>
 <tr><td>μαθητῶν</td><td>νεανιῶν</td></tr>
 <tr><td>μαθηταῖς</td><td>νεανίαις</td></tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>

3.12 It is necessary for you to be able to recognize the forms of these paradigms, not by learning them off by heart, but by understanding how their flexions compare with and differ from that for the feminine article. 
3.13 FEMININE CONSONANT STEM PARADIGM (D1.2): If the stem of a feminine word ends in a phoneme (#1.42) other than -ρ, -ι, ε, or a sibilant, then the flexion for that word is identical with that for the feminine article ἡ, #2.40, taking -η throughout all its singular endings (like φωνή). This is Paradigm D1.2 (the abbreviation for Declension 1, Paradigm 2), referred to as the "Feminine Consonant Stem Paradigm", because almost all the words which follow this paradigm have consonant stems — it is followed by 191 New Testament words, 185 with consonant stems, four ending in -οη one in -ωη, and one in -ευη (these words are listed in #D1.64). NOTE: If you know the feminine article, then you already know how to decline φωνή, for it follows the article exactly. 
3.14 FEMININE pie STEM PARADIGM (D1.1): If the stem of a word ends in one of the three phonemes -ρ, -ι, or -ε, then that word has -α throughout all its singular endings (like καρδία). This is Paradigm D1.1, referred to as the "ριε" Paradigm because the stem of all but one of the words which follow this paradigm — there are 310 of them in the New Testament — ends in a p, / or a (The one exception is στοά, "porch", which is also an exception to the expectation — see #3.13 — that an -ο stem would end in -οη.³⁸) NOTE: If you know the paradigm for φωνή, you can immediately see how καρδία, will decline: simply change each -η in the flexion of φωνή into -α, and you have the endings for καρδία. 
40

THREE: FIRST DECLENSION AND SECOND AORIST ACTIVE 41 
3.15 FEMININE SIGMA STEM PARADIGM (D1.3): If the stem of a word ends in a sibilant (ζ, σ, or a double letter containing σ), then that word follows the mixed pattern of δόξα, Paradigm D1.3, referred to as the "Sigma Stem Paradigm". In addition, the Sigma Stem Paradigm is also followed by four New Testament words ending in -ρ, eight in -ν, and one each in -λ and -θ. As there are eight New Testament nouns with sibilant stems, there are thus a total of 22 New Testament nouns which follow Paradigm D1.3. These nouns, and the number of times each occurs in the New Testament, are set out in #D1.65. Paradigm D1.3 is also followed by numerous pronouns and participles which have a sibilant stem in their feminine flexions. NOTE: If you know the paradigms for καρδία and φωνή, you can immediately see how to decline δόξα: the endings of the first two forms (nominative and accusative singular) follow καρδία, and the next two (genitive and dative singular) follow φωνή: hence the description of the paradigm of δόξα as "the mixed pattern". 
3.16 MASCULINE CONSONANT STEM PARADIGM (D1.5): Most words of the First Declension are feminine, belonging to one or other of the above three paradigms. There are also, in the New Testament, 112 masculine common nouns of the First Declension, 111 of which have their stem ending in a consonant (usually -τ), and which all follow Paradigm D1.5, μαθητής. There are three differences between this paradigm and D1.2, the corresponding Feminine Consonant Stem Paradigm: 
(a) in the nominative singular, masculine words are distinguished by taking an additional -ς as their final letter; 
(b) this paradigm has a vocative case ending in -α (this is the second exception for us to note to the generalization that the vocative has the same form as the nominative [#2.27; see also #2.46]); and 
(c) in the genitive singular, masculine First Declension words switch to the pattern of the Second Declension (see #2.40) and take -ου as their ending — which has the effect of making a difference between the forms of the nominative and genitive singular of this paradigm. NOTE: If you know the paradigm for φωνή, you can immediately see how μαθητής will decline: simply make the three "First Declension masculine" changes to the flexion of φωνή, and you have the paradigm for μαθητής. 
3.17 MASCULINE ριε STEM PARADIGM (D1.4): There is only one masculine common noun of the First Declension with a "ριε" stem: νεανίας. However, there are twenty-four names (for example, Ἀνδρεας, "Andrew") which follow Paradigm D1.4. This paradigm differs from that of μαθητής (Paradigm D1.5) in the same way that καρδία differs from φωνή where μαθητής has -η, νεανίας has -α. NOTE: If you know the paradigm for καρδία, you can immediately see how veaviag will decline: simply make the three "First Declension masculine" changes (see #3.16) to the flexion of καρδία, and you have the paradigm for νεανίας. There is also a sixth First Declension paradigm — D1.6, the "long α" paradigm, followed by three rare words and thirty-two names such as Θωμᾶς, "Thomas". This differs from veaviag only in one form: the genitive singular ending is -α, not -ου. 
3.18 PLURALS ALL THE SAME: In all cases in the plural, the First Declension nouns, both masculine and feminine, follow the endings of the feminine article. 
3.19 AGREEMENT IN GENDER: As the article always agrees in gender with its noun, "the disciple" will be ὁ μαθητής, and "the disciples" will be οἱ μαθηταί. TEST: Translate: "of the young man". 
3.2 FEMININE NOUNS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION ος κύριος
3.21 In #2.40 we met the masculine and neuter paradigms of the Second Declension, the most common noun group in the Greek New Testament. In the New Testament there are also fifty Second Declension nouns which are (or can be) feminine in gender. All these feminine nouns have their nominative singular in -og and follow the paradigm of niptog exactly. But when they take the article, it will be feminine gender, because the article always agrees with the noun to which it refers in number, gender and case (#2.33). 

42 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
3.22 Twenty-eight such feminine Second Declension nouns occur in the Greek New Testament (listed, #D2.44), but most of them are used only a small number of times each. There are only five which are each used ten times or more in the Greek New Testament, and the two most common words of these five are used in the Selections in the Assignments for this Lesson. 
3.23 Twenty-two of the masculine Second Declension words can also be feminine gender. Thus ἡ θεός is "the goddess" (as in Acts 19:37); παρθένος "a virgin", can refer either to a male or a female as indicated by the gender of the article (or the context, as in Revelation 14:4); and similarly διάκονος, "servant, deacon", can be used with either masculine or feminine article (or personal name, as in Romans 16:1) to refer respectively to a male or female servant or deacon. (These twenty-two words are listed in #D2.45.) 
3.3 PRONOUNS 
3.31 Pronouns that refer to people or things, like "I", "me", "us" "you", "her", "it", are called personal pronouns. You will recognize, below, a few forms which we have met already. 
3.32 LEARN NOW the flexions of the 1st and 2nd person pronouns. As usual, learn them down the columns, for the 1st person (singular and plural) and then the 2nd person. 

<table><tr><th>SINGULAR</th><th>1st</th><th>2nd</th><th>3rd m.</th><th>3rd f.</th><th>3rd n.</th><th>m.</th><th>f.</th><th>n.</th></tr>
 <tr><th>Nominative</th><td>ἐγώ</td><td>σύ</td><td>αὐτός</td><td>αὐτή</td><td>αὐτό</td><td>οὗτος</td><td>αὕτη</td><td>τοῦτο</td></tr>
 <tr><th>Accusative</th><td>ἐμέ/με</td><td>σέ/σε</td><td>αὐτόν</td><td>αὐτήν</td><td>αὐτό</td><td>τοῦτον</td><td>ταύτην</td><td>τοῦτο</td></tr>
 <tr><th>Genitive</th><td>ἐμοῦ/μου</td><td>σοῦ/σου</td><td>αὐτοῦ</td><td>αὐτῆς</td><td>αὐτοῦ</td><td>τοῦτου</td><td>ταύτης</td><td>τοῦτου</td></tr>
 <tr><th>Dative</th><td>ἐμοί/μοι</td><td>σοί/σοι</td><td>αὐτῷ</td><td>αὐτῇ</td><td>αὐτῷ</td><td>τούτῳ</td><td>ταύτῃ</td><td>τούτῳ</td></tr>
 <tr><th>PLURAL</th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><th>Nominative</th><td>ἡμεῖς</td><td>ὑμεῖς</td><td>αυτοί</td><td>αὐταί</td><td>αὐτά</td><td>οὗτοι</td><td>αὗται</td><td>ταῦτα</td></tr>
 <tr><th>Accusative</th><td>ἡμᾶς</td><td>ὑμᾶς</td><td>αὐτούς</td><td>αὐτάς</td><td>αὐτά</td><td>τούτους</td><td>ταύτας</td><td>ταῦτα</td></tr>
 <tr><th>Genitive</th><td>ἡμῶν</td><td>ὑμῶν</td><td>αὐτῶν</td><td>αὐτῶν</td><td>αὐτῶν</td><td>τούτων</td><td>τούτων</td><td>τούτων</td></tr>
 <tr><th>Dative</th><td>ἡμῖν</td><td>ὑμῖν</td><td>αὐτοῖς</td><td>αὐταῖς</td><td>αὐτοῖς</td><td>τούτοις</td><td>ταύταις</td><td>τούτοις</td></tr>
</table>(The English meanings for these forms are given in #A3.11.)
3.33 Notice the alternative forms which are found for the 1st person singular accusative, genitive and dative pronouns. In the style of some writers, the longer form is more emphatic than the shorter form; at other times the alternatives appear to be used without any distinction of meaning. Learn both forms of these pronouns together, as being alternatives. NOTE in #A3.13 how to distinguish ἡμεῖς and ὑμεῖς. 
3.34 The third person personal pronoun is αὐτός and means "he/she/it/they", etc., depending upon number, gender, and case. (It has some other meanings as well, to be introduced in later Lessons.) Notice in its paradigm that αὐτός has endings identical with those of the article (plus the standard Second Declension "-ς" ending in the masculine nominative singular which is lacking in the article). The paradigm of αὐτός is provided here for convenient reference. NOTE THAT if you know the article, you already know how to decline αὐτός: just add the endings of the twenty-four forms of the article to the stem αὐτ-, and also the -ς to the masculine nominative singular form, and there you have it! 
3.35 Words like "this/these" and "that/those" are called demonstratives. When a demonstrative is referring to something else (as in "this voice", "these words", "that hour", "those days"), it is a demonstrative adjective. It stands in what is called the "predicative position", in front of the article, as in οὗτος ὁ υἱός "this son" (John 12:34), or after the noun without the usual repetition of the article, ἡ φωνὴ αὕτη, "this voice" (John 12:30). (When used with a demonstrative the article is 

THREE: FIRST DECLENSION AND SECOND AORIST ACTIVE 43 
not translated into English.) Like all other adjectives, a demonstrative adjective will agree with what it is referring to in number, gender, and case: notice the feminine form αὕτη used with "voice", a feminine noun.
3.36 When a demonstrative is used without reference to any other person or thing, it is a demonstrative pronoun, and it means, according to gender, "this man" (οὗτος), "this woman" (αὕτη) or "this thing" (τοῦτο). Thus Luke 22:56, Καὶ οὗτος σὺν αὐτῷ ἦν, "This man was also with him"; Acts 9:36, αὕτη ἦν πλήρης ἀγαθῶν ἔργων, "This woman was full of good works"; 1 Timothy 2:3, τοῦτο καλόν, "This thing [is] good". Similarly for the plurals: οὗτοι means "these men" (or "these people", both men and women); αὗται, "these women"; and ταῦτα, "these things". 
3.37 From looking at the paradigm of οὗτος, you can see how very similar it is to αὐτός, and to the article. Like the article, it begins with a "τ" in all cases except the nominatives of the masculine and feminine singular and plural, where instead of the "τ" there is a rough breathing. οὗτος though, has the unique feature that there are two forms of the stem, one with the diphthong ου- and the other with αυ-: can you discern the pattern for when one or the other of these diph-thongs occurs in a word form? (If you cannot see the pattern, the answer is in #A3.16.) NOTE that only the breathing and accent differentiate αὐτή (feminine nominative singular of αὐτός) and αὕτη (feminine nominative singular of οὗτος); and αὐταί (feminine nominative plural of αὐτός) and αὕτη (feminine nominative plural of οὗτος): the letters of the words are the same. Care needs to be taken, therefore, to identify these forms correctly. This is the third occasion when the breathing/accent on a word needs particularly to be noted (see also #A1.37 and #2.88). 
3.38 ἐκεῖνος is the demonstrative pronoun/adjective meaning "that/that one". It is declined with the same endings as οὗτος but without any change in the stem of the word. Like οὗτος, it takes the predicative position when used with a noun (#3.35). 
3.4 CLUES FROM THE AGREEMENT OF THE ARTICLE AND ADJECTIVES 
3.41 Because the article and adjectives always agree with their noun in number, gender, and case, they often provide valuable clues to the identification of the number, gender, and case of nouns in a sentence when these might otherwise not be known to you. 
3.42 Thus when you first see the word μισθόν, it is not possible for you to know whether it is: 
(a) μισθός (masculine, D2.1), in the accusative singular (like κύριον), or 
(b) μισθόν (neuter, D2.2) (like ἔργον), in the nominative or accusative singular. This query is resolved when you see it with its article: τὸν μισθόν: if it were neuter, the form of the article would be "τό". 
Similarly, for βασιλείας: is this 
(a) βασιλείας (masculine, D1.4), i.e., the nominative singular of a First Declension masculine noun (like νεανίας), or 
(b) the genitive singular of βασιλεία (feminine, D1.1), i.e. a First Declension feminine (like καρδίας), 
or (c) the accusative plural of such a First Declension feminine? The article τῆς with βασιλείας resolves the question. Again, there are many word forms ending in "-α": ὄνομα, πνεῦμα, πρόβατα, θύρα, and so on. These forms can be clarified and deciphered when we take note of the form of the articles (and/or adjectives) used with them: τὸ ἐμὸν ὄνομα, τὸ πνεῦαμ, τὰ πρόβατα, ἡ θύρα. 
3.5 THE PRESENT IMPERATIVE, SECOND PERSON PLURAL 
3.51 In Lesson Two we noted the paradigm of λύω for the present indicative and interrogative active. We saw that the form λύετε could mean "you are loosing" or "are you loosing?" This particular form of the verb also happens to be the same for a command or request (that is, the imperative mode). So it can also mean, "Loose!" as an order to two or more people. Usually the context makes it plain whether the meaning is indicative, interrogative, or imperative. 

44 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
3.52 Where Knowing Greek Makes a Difference: In fact, a number of ambiguous sentences do exist in the Greek New Testament. 
(a) For example, Jesus said, IrlarE15E2E Eic ray 0E6V, Kai eig kpe IriCrTEljETE (John 14:1). Is he making a statement, asking a question, or telling his disciples something that they are to do? Or could it be that the first IrlarE15ETE, "believe", is indicative and the second is imperative? This would give the meaning as, "You believe in God; believe also in me." 
(b) The most theologically significant of these places of uncertainty is 1 Corinthians 12:31a. In this verse Paul speaks of the Corinthians earnestly desiring the higher gifts. But the Greek of this verse can either be translated, "But eagerly desire the greater gifts" (NIV text), taking the verb crioft-e as an imperative, or, "But you are eagerly desiring the greater gifts" (NIV margin), taking the alternative possible meaning of criA,ofirE as an indicative, a statement of fact. The interpre-tation of the verb as an imperative (that is, an instruction) would be that the Corinthians (and Christians in general) must eagerly desire the greater gifts — and these gifts would then be seen as certain ones selected from the catalogue in 1 Corinthians 12:7 to 10 and/or 27 to 30. On the other hand, the verb can be taken as indicative. Then the interpretation is that Paul is stating that what they are doing is eagerly desiring the (in their opinion) greater gifts, whereas the right concern that they should have, which he is now setting before them, is somewhat different: first of all, that all gifts are important for the functioning of the church, the body of Christ (12:7, 12-27); secondly, that the Christian does not choose his/her gifts but the Lord allocates them (12:11, 18, 28); and thirdly, that he (Paul) will now show them the most excellent way (chapter 13). Knowing Greek will not automatically solve ambiguities of this kind — but it certainly can enable us to be aware of them, should prevent us from building doctrinal structures on such ambiguous passages, and will (hopefully) encourage us to read them more carefully in their total context, and check them out in commentaries on the Greek text of the New Testament. 
3.6 TIME, ASPECT, AND CONJUGATION 
3.61 PAST TIME IN GREEK: Unlike English, Greek does not have a "past tense" as such. Instead, past time is indicated in Greek by prefixing the past time morph (called an augment) to the beginning of the verb lexal. There are two kinds of past time morph, one for verb lexals beginning with a consonant, and another for those beginning with a vowel. 
3.62 SYLLABIC AUGMENT: If the verb lexal begins with a consonant, the augment is an additive morph, the addition of E-. This is called the syllabic augment because it adds a syllable to the word. For example: with the syllabic augment added, the verb lexal PaA,- becomes OaA,-. 
3.63 TEMPORAL AUGMENT: If the verb lexal begins with a vowel, the augment consists instead of the lengthening of this vowel. Thus this augment is a process morph: a process of change which is applied to something that is already part of the verb form.'8 (For an earlier instance, see #2.82.) This process of lengthening to indicate past time is called the temporal augment. The temporal augment lengthens: a- into n-, e- into 77-, and o- into co-. (For example, the verb lexal eAB- becomes 7).1.9-.) If the short vowel which is being lengthened is part of a diphthong with iota, the iota goes subscript on the lengthened vowel (#1.56). (For example, the lexal of aireco, ante-, becomes 1:1TE-: see further, #4.51.) 
3.64 GREEK ASPECT: There are three tenses in Greek which take the augment, i.e. which indicate past time: the aorist (pronounced air-rist, rhyming with "fairest"), the imperfect, and the pluperfect. When they have the augment they all refer to the past; the difference between them is the kind of action which they indicate. This feature is called the verb's aspect. The aorist tense indicates punctiliar aspect'9: the whole aspect of the verb is regarded as a point — hence the name "punctiliar". The imperfect tense is durative aspect19: the emphasis of this aspect is upon the 

THREE: FIRST DECLENSION AND SECOND AORIST ACTIVE 45 
duration of the activity, which is being shown to be of an ongoing, repeated, or incomplete nature — action still in progress at the time being spoken of. The pluperfect tense is perfective aspect¹⁹: the action has been brought to a completion, with consequences that have been continuing. (Further details about aspect will be given in the next Lesson.)
3.65 THREE AORIST PATTERNS: In Greek there are three different patterns of the formation of the aorist tense. All three have exactly the same meaning. (This is similar in principle to the different ways which English has of forming a past tense: consider for example the English past tense forms of "bake" ["baked"], "make" ["made"], "take" ["took"], and "wake" ["woke"].) These three aorist patterns are called first aorist, second aorist, and third aorist. The "first aorist" pattern will be set out in Lesson Four, and the "third aorist" pattern in Lesson Seven. 
3.66 THE SECOND AORIST: The "second aorist" pattern prefixes the augment to the verb lexal, and adds a special set of pronoun endings which are somewhat different from the set for the present tense. The second aorist flexions are given in #3.81 for the lexals βαλ- (the verb stem of βάλλω, "I throw") and ἐλθ- (which has no durative [present] form — it has to make use of the durative flexions of another verb, ἔρχομαι, "I come"; see #3.69). 
3.67 THREE CONJUGATIONS: Families of verbs are called conjugations. There are three verb "families" or conjugations in New Testament Greek. Verbs which possess second aorist forms comprise the Second Conjugation (C2); verbs which have third aorist forms and/or a lexical form ending in -μι comprise the Third Conjugation (C3); all other verbs have first aorist forms, conjugate their flexions like λύω, and comprise the First Conjugation (C1). 
3.68 INHERENT ASPECT: A verb lexal possesses inherent aspect — that is, a lexal always is, in itself, either durative or punctiliar aspect. First Conjugation verbs have durative lexals; Second and Third Conjugation verbs have punctiliar lexals. 
3.69 SUPPLETIVE VERBS: Seven verbs which are Second Conjugation (and whose lexals therefore are inherently punctiliar) are defective and are incapable of forming a present tense (durative) form, and instead have to utilize the durative forms from another defective verb. These are known as suppletive verbs. Three of these verbs are to be noted this Lesson, all of which are very common in the Greek New Testament: 

<table>
 <tr><th>Lexal</th><th>Second Aorist</th><th>Associated Present Tense</th></tr>
 <tr>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><td>ἐλθ-</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἰδ-</td></tr>
 <tr><td>εἰπ-</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><td>ἦλθον</td><td>I came</td></tr>
 <tr><td>εἶδον</td><td>I saw</td></tr>
 <tr><td>εἶπον</td><td>I spoke/said</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><td>ἔρχομαι</td><td>I come</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ὁράω</td><td>I see</td></tr>
 <tr><td>λέγω</td><td>I speak/say</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 </tr>
</table>

NOTE: Make out vocabulary cards for these words. 

3.7 COMPOUND VERBS 
Associated Present Tense 4)xo,uat I come opaw I see 2Leyo) I speak/say
3.71 A very large number of verbs in the Greek New Testament are compound verbs, that is, verbs compounded of a simple or simplex verb and a preposition that has been added to the beginning of it. The meaning of the simplex verb is then affected by the preposition. 
3.72 Sometimes compound verbs have meanings that are a compound of the meanings of the simplex verb and the preposition. Examples: ἐκ/ἐξ, "out [of]"; βάλλω, "I throw"; ἐκβάλλω, "I throw out, drive out, send away"; ἦλθον, "I came"; ἐξῆλθον, "I came out, departed". In contrast, numerous other compound verbs have meanings that are quite different from those of the preposition plus original simplex verbs. Thus: ἀπό, "from"; ἔχω, "I have"; ἀπέχω, "I have in full". 

46 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
3.73 NOTE: When a compound verb is augmented, the augment goes between the preposition and the simplex verb. Thus: the second aorist form ἐξέβαλον, from ἐκβάλλω. (NOTE ALSO that the preposition in front of the augment is ἐξ not ἐκ, because in this form of the word it is followed by a vowel — see #1.75.) 
3.8 PARADIGMS FOR THE IMPERFECT OF EIMI AND THE SECOND AORIST ACTIVE 

<table>
 <tr><td>3.81</td><td>IMPERFECT OF εἰμί</td><td style = "text-align: center">SECOND AORIST ACTIVE</td></tr>
 <tr>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><td style="text-align: right">S 1</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="text-align: right">2</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="text-align: right">3</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="text-align: right">P 1</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="text-align: right">2</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="text-align: right">3</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><td>ἤμην</td><td>I was</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἦς/ἦσθα</td><td>you were</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἦν</td><td>he/she/it was</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἤμεθα</td><td>we were</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἦτε</td><td>you were</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἦσαν</td><td>they were</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 <td>
 <table>

 <tr><td>ἔβαλον</td><td>I threw</td><td>ἦλθον</td><td>I came</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἔβαλες</td><td>you threw</td><td>ἦλθες</td><td>you came</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἔβαλε(ν)</td><td>he/she/it threw</td><td>ἦλθε(ν)</td><td>he/she/it came</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἐβάλομεν</td><td>we threw</td><td>ἤλθομεν</td><td>we came</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἐβάλετε</td><td>you threw</td><td>ἤλθετε</td><td>you came</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἔβαλον</td><td>they threw</td><td>ἦλθον</td><td>they came</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 </tr>
</table>

 



3.82 The area of meaning for ἦλθον includes "I went" as well as "I came". 
3.83 Notice that the second aorist forms for the first person singular and for the third person plural are identical. When one of these forms is encountered, it is therefore necessary to examine the context carefully for clues that indicate which of these two possibilities is in fact the right one. Usually such indications will be available — otherwise the sentence will be ambiguous in Greek. 
3.9 THE VERB MORPH SLOTS 
3.91 All the information about the total meaning of a particular verb form is conveyed through the morphs of which it is made up. These morphs can be thought of in various ways (READ #A3.3). It is important to be able to recognize each morph swiftly, and thus to "read" the information that it contains. 
3.92 There are altogether nine categories of morph which can occur in a verb (though no more than six will be found in any given verb form). The places where these morphs can occur in a verb are called morph slots.
3.93 The morphs of a verb can be set out so as to show which slot each occupies. Identifying the morphs of a verb form in this way is called morphological analysis" or morphologizing. The neutral morph is placed in the aspect slot (Slot 7). The verbs that we have met in Lessons Two and Three have morphs which occupy either two, three, four or five of the nine available slots. They can be shown as follows (using as an example the first person plural forms of εἰμί, λύω, βάλλω, ἐκβάλλω): 
3.94 Where a morph consists of the lengthening of a phoneme, this is indicated by a capital L in the column for that morph. Thus: 

<table>
 <tr><th>VERB FORM  </th><th>1 PREPOSITION</th><th>2 PAST</th><th>3  </th><th>4 LEXAL</th><th>5  </th><th>6  </th><th>7 ASPECT</th><th>8  </th><th>9 ENDING</th></tr>
 <tr><td style = "text-align: right;">ἐσμεν</td><td style = "text-align: center;"></td><td style = "text-align: center;"></td><td></td><td style = "text-align: center;">ἐσ</td><td></td><td></td><td style = "text-align: center;"></td><td></td><td style = "text-align: center;">μεν</td></tr>
 <tr><td style = "text-align: right;">λύομεν</td><td style = "text-align: center;"></td><td style = "text-align: center;"></td><td></td><td style = "text-align: center;">λυ</td><td></td><td></td><td style = "text-align: center;">ο</td><td></td><td style = "text-align: center;">μεν</td></tr>
 <tr><td style = "text-align: right;">ἐβάλομεν</td><td style = "text-align: center;"></td><td style = "text-align: center;">ἐ</td><td></td><td style = "text-align: center;">βαλ</td><td></td><td></td><td style = "text-align: center;">ο</td><td></td><td style = "text-align: center;">μεν</td></tr>
 <tr><td style = "text-align: right;">ἐξεβάλομεν</td><td style = "text-align: center;">ἐξ</td><td style = "text-align: center;">ε</td><td></td><td style = "text-align: center;">βαλ</td><td></td><td></td><td style = "text-align: center;">ο</td><td></td><td style = "text-align: center;">μεν</td></tr>
 <tr><td style = "text-align: right;">λύω</td><td style = "text-align: center;"></td><td style = "text-align: center;"></td><td></td><td style = "text-align: center;">λυ</td><td></td><td></td><td style = "text-align: center;">ο</td><td></td><td style = "text-align: center;">L(="I")</td></tr>
 <tr><td style = "text-align: right;">ἦλθον</td><td style = "text-align: center;"></td><td style = "text-align: center;">L</td><td></td><td style = "text-align: center;">ἐλθ</td><td></td><td></td><td style = "text-align: center;">ο</td><td></td><td style = "text-align: center;">ν</td></tr>
 <tr><td style = "text-align: right;">ἐξήλθετε</td><td style = "text-align: center;">ἐξ</td><td style = "text-align: center;">L</td><td></td><td style = "text-align: center;">ελθ</td><td></td><td></td><td style = "text-align: center;">ε</td><td></td><td style = "text-align: center;">τε</td></tr>
</table>

THREE: FIRST DECLENSION AND SECOND AORIST ACTIVE 47 
ASSIGNMENTS ON LESSON THREE 
1. PARADIGMS FOR LEARNING: The paradigms which now need to be learnt by heart are:     4. The first and second person personal pronouns (ἐγώ and σύ, #3.32);     5. The imperfect of εἰμί (#3.81);     6. The paradigm of the second aorist (either ἔβαλον or ἦλθον, #3.81). NOTE: Follow the same learning pattern as for previous Lessons, and make use of the Practice Sheet in your Workbook. 
2. LEARNING THE FIRST DECLENSION: Compare the feminine flexion of the article with the five paradigms of the First Declension. Learn to recognize the forms of the First Declension by noting similarities and differences between their endings and the article. 
3. APPENDIX: READ CAREFULLY the additional information set out in Appendix #A3. 
4. WORKBOOK: ANSWER THE QUESTIONS in your Workbook about this Lesson. 
5. TRANSLATION EXERCISES A AND B: Do the English into Greek exercises, and then read and translate literally the thirty Selections from the Greek New Testament. NOTE: To do this work you will need to use the paradigms set for learning this Lesson, together with the paradigms and vocabulary of the previous Lessons. The new prepositions given below, and the case(s) which they take, should be carefully noted. Most of the Selections introduce new vocabulary which is then used again in the Selections which follow. LEARN each unknown word as you use it. 
6. VOCABULARY CARDS: Write out Vocabulary Cards for the new words introduced in this Lesson, putting 3 (for -Lesson Three") in the top lefthand corner of each side of each Card. Add these Cards to your collection, and place them all in alphabetical order. [Don't forget to put on your Preposition Cards the case(s) taken by each preposition.] 
PREPOSITIONS 

<table>
 <tr>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><td>ἀπό</td><td>(+gen)</td><td>from</td></tr>
 <tr><td>εἰς</td><td>(+acc)</td><td>into to (for)</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἐν</td><td>(+dat)</td><td>in, at, with (#2.65)</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἔναντι</td><td>(+gen)</td><td>in the presence of</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><td>ἐντός</td><td></td><td>(+gen)</td><td>within, in the midst of</td></tr>
 <tr><td>μετά, μετ’, μεθ’</td><td>{</td><td>(+acc) (+gen)</td><td>after with</td></tr>
 <tr><td>παρά</td><td></td><td>(+acc)</td><td>beside</td></tr>
 <tr><td>περί</td><td></td><td>(+gen)</td><td>concerning</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 </tr>
</table>


A. TRANSLATION FROM ENGLISH INTO GREEK 
(This may be done as an exercise in class at the end of the Lesson, or set as an assignment.) 
For needed vocabulary, check through the English side of your Vocabulary Cards. 
<table>
 <tr><td>A1.</td><td>"We (emphatic) have the peace of God in our hearts."</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A2.</td><td>Concerning John, Jesus said to his disciples,</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A3.</td><td>"I say to you, he (emphatic) is a prophet of God."</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A4.</td><td>"O Lord, you are sending your prophets to us."</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A5.</td><td>God sends his son into our world, and we see his glory.</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A6.</td><td>Jesus, you came to us out of heaven, and you spoke to me.</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A7.</td><td>The teacher said, "I (emphatic) tell you, the law is good."</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A8.</td><td>"I perceive that this is the word of truth from God."</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A9.</td><td>The king sees Jesus but does not hear his voice.</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A10.</td><td>They threw the lamb into the field. This was not good.</td></tr>
</table>


48 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 

<table>
 <tr><td>A11.</td><td>Jesus said to the man, "You (emphatic) have a demon."</td></tr>
 <tr><td>Al2.</td><td>The Lord came into the field with his disciples.</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A13.</td><td>The woman saw Jesus and said, "I see him beside my house."</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A14.</td><td>She came into her house and Jesus hears her voice.</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A15.</td><td>She (emphatic) says, "Does he see me and is he speaking to me?"</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A16.</td><td>Jesus said to her, "I saw that you were in that place."</td></tr>
</table>


B. SELECTIONS FROM THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
(NOTE: These are Selections from the verses listed; only a part of the verse is being set for you to read at this stage.)

<table>
 <tr><td> </td><th>SELECTION</th><th>NOTES AND NEW WORDS</th></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B1.</td><td>Τίς ἐστιν οὗτος ὁ υἱὸς τοῦ ἀνθρώπου; (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 12:34)</td><td>Σαμαρείτης, -ου, ὁ: a Samaritan</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B2.</td><td>Ἰδοὺ γάρ, ἡ βασιλεία τοῦ θεοῦ ἐντὸς ὑμῶν ἐστίν. (ΚΑΤΑ ΛΟΥΚΑΝ 17:21)</td><td>Σίμων: Simon; Ἰωνᾶς, -ᾶ, ὁ: Jonas</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B3.</td><td>Καὶ σὺ ἦσθα μετὰ Ἰησοῦ τοῦ Γαλιλαίου. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 26:69)</td><td>Γαλιλαῖος -α -ον: Galilean</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B4.</td><td>Ὁ πατὴρ ἡμῶν Ἀβραάμ ἐστιν. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 8:39)</td><td>*πατήρ, -τρός, ὁ: father</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B5.</td><td>εἶπον, Υἱὸς τοῦ θεοῦ εἰμι; (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 10:36)</td><td>*εἶπον: I said [#3.69]</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B6.</td><td>πιστεύετε εἰς τὸν θεόν, καὶ εἰς ἐμὲ πιστεύετε. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 14:1)</td><td>*πιστεύω: I believe</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B7.</td><td>Ταῦτα δὲ ὑμῖν ἐξ ἀρχῆς οὐκ εἶπον, ὅτι μεθ’ ὑμῶν ἤμην. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 16:4)</td><td>*ἀρχή, -ῆς, ἡ: beginning (ruler); *ὅτι: because (that)</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B8.</td><td>Θωμᾶς … εἶπεν αὐτῷ, Ὁ κύριός μου καὶ ὁ θεός μου. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 20:28)</td><td>Θωμᾶς, -ᾶ, ὁ: Thomas</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B9.</td><td>Ἡ γὰρ καρδία σου οὐκ ἔστιν εὐθεῖα ἐνώπιον τοῦ θεοῦ. (ΠΡΑΞΕΙΣ ΑΠΟΣΤΟΛΩΝ 8:21)</td><td>εὐθεῖα: right, upright (fem. adj.)</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B10.</td><td>ἔσται ὁ υἱὸς τοῦ ἀνθρώπου ἐν τῇ καρδίᾳ τῆς γῆς τρεῖς ἡμέρας καὶ τρεῖς νύκτας. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 12:40) </td><td>ἔσται: [he] will be; *τρεῖς: three; *νύξ, -υκτός, ἡ night</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B11.</td><td>ἦλθεν ὁ Ἰησοῦς εἰς τὴν Γαλιλαίαν, κηρύσσων τὸ εὐαγγέλιον τῆς βασιλείας τοῦ θεοῦ, … πιστεύετε ἐν τῷ εὐαγγελίῳ (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΡΚΟΝ 1:14-15)</td><td>*ἦλθον: I came [#3.69]; Γαλιλαία, -ας, ἡ: Galilee; *κηρύσσων: preaching (participle)</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B12.</td><td>Κύριε, κύριε, οὐ τῷ σῷ ὀνόματι … δαιμόνια ἐξεβάλομεν (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 7:22)</td><td>*ὄνομα, -ατος, τό: name; *ἐκβάλλω: I drive out, cast out</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B13.</td><td>Τὸ βάπτισμα Ἰωάννου ἐξ οὐρανοῦ ἦν, ἢ ἐξ ἀνθρώπων; (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΡΚΟΝ 11:30)</td><td>βάπτισμα, -ατος, τό: baptism; *ἤ: or (than)</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B14.</td><td>Καὶ ὁ Ἰησοῦς … εἶπεν αὐτῷ, Οὐ μακρὰν εἶ ἀπὸ τῆς βασιλείας τοῦ θεοῦ. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΡΚΟΝ 12:34)</td><td>μακράν: far [adverb]</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B15.</td><td>Σὺ εἶ μαθητὴς ἐκείνου· ἡμεῖς δὲ τοῦ Μωσέως ἐσμὲν μαθηταί. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 9:28)</td><td>*μαθητής, -οῦ, ὁ: disciple; *ἐκεῖνος -η -ο: that, that one; Μωϋσεύς, -έως, ὁ: Moses</td></tr>
</table>




THREE: FIRST DECLENSION AND SECOND AORIST ACTIVE 49 

<table>
 <tr><td> </td><th>SELECTION</th><th>NOTES AND NEW WORDS</th></tr>
 <tr><td>B16.</td><td>(ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 18:28)</td><td>*ἄγω: I lead, bring; Καϊάφας: Caiaphas; πραιτώριον, -ου, τό: governor's residence</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B17.</td><td>(ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 19:4)</td><td>*ἐξῆλθον: I came out; *πάλιν: again, once again; *ἔξω: outside</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B18.</td><td>(ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 21:8)</td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><td>B19.</td><td>(ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 10:3, 7)</td><td>πρόβατον, -ου, τό: sheep; *ἀκούω: I hear (takes genitive: #A3.42); *ἀμήν: truly; θύρα, -ας, ἡ; door</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B20.</td><td>(ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 15:33)</td><td>ἐρημία, -ας, ἡ: a desert, deserted place</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B21.</td><td>(ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 6:2)</td><td>ἀπέχω: I receive (have) in full; μισθός, -ου, ὁ: reward (pay, wages)</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B22.</td><td>(ΑΠΟΚΑΛΥΨΙΣ ΙΩΑΝΝΟΥ 4:1)</td><td>*εἶδον: I saw, looked [#3.69]; ἀνεῳγμένη: standing open (participle)</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B23.</td><td>(ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 10:16)</td><td>*ὡς: as, like; *μέσος, -η, -ον: the midst; λύκος, -ου, ὁ: wolf</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B24.</td><td>(ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 5:48)</td><td>ἔσεσθε: you shall be (plural); τέλειος, -α, -ον: mature, perfect; οὐράνιος, -ον: heavenly</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B25.</td><td>(ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 12:41)</td><td>Ἠσαΐας, -ου, ὁ: Isaiah; *δόξα, -ης, ἡ: glory</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B26.</td><td>(ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 4:18)</td><td>*περιπατῶν: walking; *θάλασσα, -ης, ἡ: sea; *δύο: two; *ἀδελφός, -οῦ, ὁ: brother; λεγόμενον: called (participle); Ἀνδρέας, -ου, ὁ: Andrew</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B27.</td><td>(ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΡΚΟΝ 1:3)</td><td>Podivwc: of one crying aloud (gen ptc); e'pri,uog, -ov, r): deserted place, desert; erotydco-are: prepare; *6(56g, -of), rj: way</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B28.</td><td>(ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 18:20)</td><td>015: where; o-vvriypevot: gathered together; *eyóg, kyri, kiloV: my (adjective); *kicel.: there</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B29.</td><td>(ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΡΚΟΝ 1:12)</td><td>*ef)Oog: immediately; *rver),Lia, -aro; To: Spirit (spirit), breath, wind</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B3O.</td><td>(ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 1:21-23)</td><td>Miag, -ov, 6: Elijah; creavwf): yourself (gen.); *Nn: he said; efAjvare: make straight (imperative); *twee*: just as</td></tr>
</table>

<hr>
</div>

<div id="L4" class="Lesson">
LESSON FOUR 
THE RELATIVE PRONOUN AND THE ACTIVE VOICE 
4.1 THE RELATIVE PRONOUN
4.11 The relative pronoun is "who", "whose", "what", "which", etc. The paradigm for this is very similar to that for the article (see #2.4) except (a) that it always has an accent (the article does not have an accent in the forms ὁ, ἡ, οἱ and αἱ); (b) that it always commences with a rough breathing and never with a "τ"; and (c) that the masculine nominative singular has the standard ending "ς" (the corresponding form of the article is ὁ). 
4.12 NOTE that the relative pronoun consists in fact solely of the endings for οὗτος (see #3,32), and its stem is simply the rough breathing. 
 

<table>
 <tr><td>4.13</td><td></td><th>Masc.</th><td></td><th>Fem.</th><th>Neut.</th><td></td></tr>
 <tr><th>SINGULAR</th><th>Nominative</th><td>ὅς</td><td>who</td><td>ἥ</td><td>ὅ</td><td>which/what</td></tr>
 <tr><td></td><th>Accusative</th><td>ὅν</td><td>whom</td><td>ἥν</td><td>ὅ</td><td>which/what</td></tr>
 <tr><td></td><th>Genitive</th><td>οὗ</td><td>whose</td><td>ἧς</td><td>οὗ</td><td>of which/what</td></tr>
 <tr><td></td><th>Dative</th><td>ᾧ</td><td>to/for whom</td><td>ᾗ</td><td>ᾧ</td><td>to/for which/what</td></tr>
 <tr><th>PLURAL</th><th>Nominative</th><td>οἵ</td><td>who</td><td>αἵ</td><td>ἅ</td><td>which/what</td></tr>
 <tr><td></td><th>Accusative</th><td>οὕς</td><td>whom</td><td>ἅς</td><td>ἅ</td><td>which/what</td></tr>
 <tr><td></td><th>Genitive</th><td>ὧν</td><td>whose</td><td>ὧν</td><td>ὧν</td><td>of which/what</td></tr>
 <tr><td></td><th>Dative</th><td>οἷς</td><td>to/for whom</td><td>αἷς</td><td>οἷς</td><td>to/for which/what</td></tr>
</table>

4.14 NOTE the accent: always an acute on the nominative and accusative forms (and under the rules of accentuation this usually changes to a grave before following words - see #E6); always a circumflex on the genitive and dative forms. 
4.15 NOTE also that there are several forms of the relative pronoun which are differentiated from other words only by their accent and/or breathing: (a) the only difference between the forms ὅ, ἥ, οἵ and αἵ and forms for the article is that the relative pronoun has an accent (either an acute or a grave) while the article does not have an accent; (b) the word ἤ, which means "or" (L3/B13) or "than" (#7.48), differs in accent and breathing, and in breathing, respectively from the nominative singular feminine article ἡ and the nominative singular feminine relative ἥ; (c) compare similarly the accusative singular feminine relative ἥν with ἦν, the third person singular imperfect "he/she/it was" form from εἰμί (#3.81), and the genitive ἧς with ἦς, "you (singular) were" form from εἰμί; (d) the word "where", οὗ (see L3/B28) is identical with the masculine/neuter genitive singular relative οὗ, and differs in accent and breathing from οὐ, "not" (#2.94). (For other important accents, see #A4.23.)
4.16 The relative pronoun takes the gender and number of the word to which it refers (called its antecedent), and the case that is appropriate for its function in its own clause. However, in some sentences the writer will be found to have put the relative into the case of its antecedent. This is referred to as the "attraction of the relative". 
4.17 The translation of the relative (for both singular and plural) is usually "who" etc. if personal gender (that is, masculine or feminine), or "what" or "which" etc. if neuter. Examples: "The Lord whom you seek will suddenly come ..."; "The body of which you all are members ..."; "You are my friends if you do what I command you." It needs to be remembered that "who", "what" and "which" are used according to the gender of the antecedent in English - the gender in Greek may be different (#2.13). in many cases the relative may be best translated "that": "The words that I have spoken to you ...". 
50 
FOUR: THE RELATIVE PRONOUN AND THE ACTIVE VOICE 51 
4.2 THE REST OF THE ACTIVE VERB 
4.21 So far we have met the present and second aorist of the indicative active verb (#2.81 and #3.81). Here now are the flexions for the remaining tenses and modes of the active of λύω: 

<table>
 <tr><td></td><th>INDICATIVE</th><th>SUBJUNCTIVE</th></tr>
 <tr>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><th> </th><td></td></tr>
 <tr><td>Singular</td><td>1</td></tr>
 <tr><td></td><td>2</td></tr>
 <tr><td></td><td>3</td></tr>
 <tr><td>Plural</td><td>1</td></tr>
 <tr><td></td><td>2</td></tr>
 <tr><td></td><td>3</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><th>Future</th><th>Imperfect</th><th>1st Aorist</th><th>Perfect</th></tr>
 <tr><td>λύσω</td><td>ἔλυον</td><td>ἔλυσα</td><td>λέλυκα</td></tr>
 <tr><td>λύσεις</td><td>ἔλυες</td><td>ἔλυσας</td><td>λέλυκας</td></tr>
 <tr><td>λύσει</td><td>ἔλυε(ν)</td><td>ἔλυσε(ν)</td><td>λέλυκε(ν)</td></tr>
 <tr><td>λύσομεν</td><td>ἐλύομεν</td><td>ἐλύσαμεν</td><td>λελύκαμεν</td></tr>
 <tr><td>λύσετε</td><td>ἐλύετε</td><td>ἐλύσατε</td><td>λελύκατε</td></tr>
 <tr><td>λύσουσι(ν)</td><td>ἔλυον</td><td>ἔλυσαν</td><td>λελύκασι(ν)</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><th>Present</th><th>Aorist</th></tr>
 <tr><td>λύω</td><td>λύσω</td></tr>
 <tr><td>λύῃς</td><td>λύσῃς</td></tr>
 <tr><td>λύῃ</td><td>λύσῃ</td></tr>
 <tr><td>λύωμεν</td><td>λύσωμεν</td></tr>
 <tr><td>λύητε</td><td>λύσητε</td></tr>
 <tr><td>λύωσι(ν)</td><td>λύσωσι(ν)</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 </tr>
</table>


<table>
 <tr><td></td><td></td><th>IMPERATIVE</th><th>Present</th><th>Aorist</th><th>Perfect</th><th> </th></tr>
 <tr><td>Singular</td><td>2</td><td>loose! (singular)</td><td>λῦε</td><td>λῦσον</td><td>(No forms</td></tr>
 <tr><td></td><td>3</td><td>let him loose (something)</td><td>λυέτω</td><td>λυσάτω</td><td>occur in</td></tr>
 <tr><td>Plural</td><td>2</td><td>loose! (plural)</td><td>λύετε</td><td>λύσατε</td><td>the New</td></tr>
 <tr><td></td><td>3</td><td>let them loose (something)</td><td>λυέτωσαν</td><td>λυσάτωσαν</td><td>Testament)</td></tr>
</table>


<table>
 <tr><th>INFINITIVE</th><td></td><td>to loose</td><td>λύειν</td><td>λῦσαι</td><td>λελυκέναι</td><td>to have loosed</td></tr>
 <tr><th>PARTICIPLE</th><th>Masculine</th><td>loosing</td><td>λύων</td><td>λύσας</td><td>λελυκώς</td><td>having loosed</td></tr>
 <tr><td></td><th>Feminine</th><td></td><td>λύουσα</td><td>λύσασα</td><td>λελυκυῖα</td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><td></td><th>Neuter</th><td></td><td>λῦον</td><td>λῦσαν</td><td>λελυκός</td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><td></td><th>M/N Genitive</th><td></td><td>λύοντος</td><td>λύσαντος</td><td>λελυκότος</td><td></td></tr>
</table>

4.22 Greek indicates future time by adding the future time morph, -σ-, to the end of the verb lexal, in front of the present tense endings. Thus we can notice that the only difference between the forms of the present tense (#2.81) and the future tense is that the future tense forms contain the future time morph, -σ-. So λύσω means, "I will loose" (see further, #A4.12). The future tense forms thus have four morphs (seen best in, say, a form like λύσομεν): the lexal, future morph, neutral morph (#2.77), and pronoun morph. (Can you identify which they each are in λύσομεν?) 
4.23 As we saw last Lesson (#3.61), Greek indicates past time by adding the past time morph, ε-, to the beginning of a verb lexal. Two of the above tenses, the imperfect and the first aorist, have ε-prefixed to their forms in the Indicative Mode, and this thus indicates that these are past time flexions. λύω is the model verb for the First Conjugation; that is, its aorist active indicative flexion follows, and thus shows us, the first aorist pattern.) 
4.3 ASPECT 
4.31 In Greek, the most important aspect of tense is the kind of action that is being referred to. This is called aspect, and it is where the major distinction between the different tenses lies. There are three aspects which a Greek verb can have: a verb denotes either: 
(a) Durative, that is, linear or progressive action (where the emphasis is upon the duration or continuation of the action, so that it refers to an ongoing, repeated or incomplete action). Durative aspect is expressed by the present and imperfect tenses. 
(b) Punctiliar, that is, point-of-time action (where the reference is to a specific, completed or once-for-all action, or where an action is viewed in its totality no matter how long it lasted, or the point of commencing or completing an action is being stressed). Punctiliar aspect is expressed by the aorist tense. 
(c) Perfective, that is, accomplished action (where the present state resulting from, and/or present consequence of, a prior action are being stressed; "the meaning of the perfect is I am in the position of having done").²⁰ Perfective aspect is expressed by the present perfect and pluperfect tenses. (There is also a rare future perfect: See #C0.33.) 

52 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
4.32 These aspects can be shown diagrammatically as: 

<table>
 <tr><td>(a)</td><td>Durative Aspect (Present and Imperfect Tenses):     Linear action:</td><td style="text-align: center;"> ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ or ••••••••••••• ongoing action or repeated action</td></tr>
 <tr><td>(b)</td><td>Punctiliar Aspect (Aorist Tense):     Point-of-time action:</td><td style="text-align: center;"> • or ⚪ action viewed in its totality</td></tr>
 <tr><td>(c)</td><td>Perfective Aspect (Present Perfect and Pluperfect Tenses):     Accomplished action:</td><td style="text-align: center;"> •⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ action leading to a state</td></tr>
</table>

4.33 The present and imperfect tenses are always durative in aspect; the aorist is always punctiliar, and the present perfect (sometimes referred to simply as "the perfect") and pluperfect (the past tense of the perfect) are always perfective. The future tense stands outside the aspect system of the verb. and does not have any inherent aspect. Sometimes its meaning is durative (that is, referring to an ongoing action in the future); in some usages it may have punctiliar significance; and often the kind of action in the future is not indicated in the context. But in any case, if a future verb does have any such significance, this is only because of the lexical meaning of a given verb or because of the way a verb is being used in a particular context.²¹ 
4.34 The pluperfect tense is quite rare in the Greek New Testament (it occurs only 86 times²²), and therefore is not set out here; but it is a part of the verb system available for the use of the Greek speaker/writer, and it will be introduced in #7.8 — it is set out in Appendix C, #C1.1. 
4.35 THE VERB'S ASPECT MORPH SLOT: How is aspect indicated in a verb? This differs to some extent depending upon whether the verb is First, Second, or Third Conjugation (#3.67). In First Conjugation verbs, aspect is indicated by the morph which is used in the verb's Aspect Morph Slot. We have seen (#3.93) that the structure of a verb consists of nine morph slots one of which — Slot 7 — is the Aspect Morph Slot. A different morph is placed in this slot to indicate forms of the durative, punctiliar, and perfective flexions of a verb.
4.36 INDICATING DURATIVE ASPECT: The lexal of every First Conjugation verb is inherently durative (#3.68), and therefore these verbs do not require to take any additional morph to make them durative: they already are durative. So when a durative form of a verb is being used, it has the neutral morph (-e- or -0-: see #2,77) in the aspect slot. The neutral morph has a "neutral" effect on the verb's aspect; the use of the neutral morph is indicating, "In this verb form, aspect is not being changed — the verb's inherent aspect still applies," Putting it round the other way: seeing that a First Conjugation verb is inherently durative, when such a verb form has the neutral morph in its Aspect Morph Slot that verb form must be either present or imperfect (the two durative tenses). It is worth noting at this point that the neutral morph is also found in the future tense (#4.22) and in the Second Aorist tense (that is, the aorist tense of the Second Conjugation; #3.81), again with the meaning that aspect is not being affected (the future tense stands outside the aspect system [#4.33], and the lexal of Second Conjugation verbs is inherently punctiliar [#3.68]). 
4.37 INDICATING PUNCTILIAR ASPECT: A First Conjugation verb indicates punctiliar aspect by taking the punctiliar morph -σα- in the aspect slot (Slot 7) instead of the neutral morph. The effect of putting the punctiliar morph in the aspect slot is to change the verb form to punctiliar aspect. This morph is an elision morph, which means that whenever it is followed by a vowel in the verb's next morph the punctiliar morph -σα- elides its vowel, -α-, to become simply -σ-. The situation can be summed up thus: the punctiliar morph is 
(a) -σα- before consonants and form final (that is, when it is at the end of the word form); and 
(b) -σ- before vowels. There are one complete flexion (the subjunctive) and three individual forms in the above λύω paradigm (#4.21) where the next morphs commence with a vowel: 3rd person singular indicative, -ε-; 2nd person singular imperative, -ον; and the infinitive, -αι (note that the -α- here is part of the infinitive morph, or else under this elision rule it would have elided in front of the -ι). Therefore in all these cases the punctiliar morph consists of just -σ-, as a result of the elision of the -α-. 
FOUR: THE RELATIVE PRONOUN AND THE ACTIVE VOICE 53 
NOTE VERY CAREFULLY that the -σ- of the punctiliar morph will always by followed by a vowel: either the -α- of its own morph, or else the vowel that has caused that -α- to elide; therefore a -σ- followed by a consonant could NEVER be the punctiliar morph. The aorist, ἔλυσα, means "I loosed" [see #A4.13(a)]. 
4.38 INDICATING PERFECTIVE ASPECT: Perfective aspect is indicated by the perfective morph -κα- in the aspect slot (Slot 7). The effect of putting the perfective morph in the aspect slot is to change the verb form to perfective aspect. Like the other aspect morphs, the perfective morph, -κα- is an elision morph, the -α- eliding before a following vowel. 
NOTICE that this -κα- becomes -κε- in one particular form, in front of the infinitive ending -ναι. 
4.39 REDUPLICATION: There is a second distinguishing feature of the perfective aspect, called reduplication, which means taking the first letter of the lexal, if it is a single consonant, and doubling it, and then separating the two letters with the vowel -ε-. Thus λυ- becomes first λλυ- and then λελυ. This creates the reduplication morph (for λύω, λε-), which occupies Slot 3 of the verb's nine morph slots. The perfect, λέλυκα, means "I have loosed". [See #A4.13(b) and A4.14.] 
4.4 MODE 
4.41 THE CONCEPT OF MODE: In #2.72 we were introduced to the concept of the verb's mode. This feature of the verb is referred to by some grammarians as "mood", but as it deals with the type of statement being made about an action and not with overtones of feelings, "mode" (the term used by Robertson, Davis, and others) is a more appropriate and much preferable designation. A. T. Robertson says, "Mode (Latin, modus) deals with the manner of the affirmation. Voice and tense deal with the action, not the affirmation ... The modes, like the tenses, deal with the statement, not with the facts in the case."17 
4.42 INDICATIVE MODE: So far we have been learning about flexions of the verb's indicative mode. The indicative mode "indicates" something; i.e. it is used for making a statement (or asking a question) about what is: the actual circumstances of whatever is being considered. From the flexions of λύω given in #4.21, notice that the aorist tense only has the augment in the indicative mode, for only in the indicative does the aorist refer to past time. In contrast, the aorist does not have the augment in the subjunctive, imperative, infinitive, or participle (or optative), because these do NOT refer to past time. They refer to punctiliar aspect, in contrast with the present tense, which designates durative aspect. The reduplication in the perfect tense is a perfective aspect morph, and quite unrelated to past time, and so is kept in all modes.
4.43 SUBJUNCTIVE MODE: The next mode for us to learn is the subjunctive mode. This mode is used when making a statement (or asking a question) about what might be: the conditional, the potential, the possible, the hypothetical, etc. It is therefore translated by words such as "may", "might", "could", "would", "should", "[if he] were to", "[if it] happens to", and similarly. Your translation of a subjunctive should aim to bring out the uncertainty which is being indicated by the use of this mode. 
4.44 TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE: 
    (a) Tenses and Meanings: There are flexions of the subjunctive mode for each of the three aspects, durative, punctiliar, and perfective. But although a perfect subjunctive existed, it was rarely used — the only two tenses of the subjunctive in common use were the present and aorist. The difference between them is solely one of aspect, that is, type of action (#4.31, #4.32). 
    (b) Subjunctive Morph: The subjunctive morph is a process morph¹⁸ not an additive morph - it is a process of change, something done to a word form, not something added to it. The subjunctive morph is the lengthening of the neutral morph. Thus the neutral morph is the carrier for the subjunctive process morph. 

54 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
(c) Present Subjunctive: A comparison of the present subjunctive with the present indicative (#4,21 with #2.81) will reveal the nature of the subjunctive process morph: the lengthening of the neutral morph in each form. Note that it cannot lengthen further when it is already long (thus, indicative first person singular form λύω remains λύω in the subjunctive). Where the neutral morph is part of a diphthong with ι the ι goes subscript to the lengthened neutral morph (thus, λύεις ⟶ λύῃς, λύει ⟶ λύῃ); where the neutral morph is part of a diphthong with υ the -υ- is lost from the word altogether (thus, λύουσιν ⟶ λύωσιν). 
(d) Aorist Subjunctive: The aorist subjunctive flexion is formed from the present subjunc-tive by adding the punctiliar morph -σα- in front of the lengthened neutral morph. But notice that this means: (a) that the punctiliar morph will always come in front of a vowel (the lengthened neutral morph) and therefore it always elides to -σ-, and is never -σα- (#4.37); and (b) that the aorist subjunctive takes the present tense form of the pronoun endings rather than the pronoun endings used for the aorist indicative. 
4.45 WORDS REQUIRING THE SUBJUNCTIVE: The words ἵνα ("in order that") and ἄν ("ever" as in the word "whoever", indicating indefiniteness) and any words compounded with ἄν (such as ἐάν, "if ever", from εἰ, "if") always take the subjunctive after them. [There are two constructions with ἄν that do not take the subjunctive, dealt with in #4.76(d) and #10.82.] These words therefore act as indicators that a subjunctive is coming. (See further, #A4.2.) 
4.46 IMPERATIVE MODE: The imperative mode is used for any form of requesting: begging, entreating, praying, exhorting, commanding. NOTE (#4.21) that Greek has a third person imperative, for which there is no equivalent form in English. We can approximate the meaning as "let (him/her/it/them) carry out the action of the verb". In the imperative, once again (as in the subjunctive), the difference between the three tenses (present, aorist, and perfect) is one of aspect, and has nothing to do with time. The present imperative indicates that the action expressed in the verb is ongoing, continued or repeated; the aorist imperative implies that the action is not ongoing, continued or repeated. The aorist imperative is the one that is normally used unless there is some reason to indicate durative action. With the negative (μή — see #4.49), the present imperative expresses the prohibition of an act already begun: "Do not continue doing, that is, stop doing, (the action of the verb)". The prohibition of an act not yet begun — "Do not begin doing (the action of the verb)" — is expressed by μή with the aorist subjunctive. 
4.47 INFINITIVE MODE: The infinitive is used: to complete the thought or the action of the main verb; in the place of a noun (in which case it will usually have the definite article, and is referred to as the articular infinitive, #9.86); in indirect speech; to express purpose or result. The infinitive can have a subject (which is put in the accusative case, not the nominative [#9.43(c)]), and it can also govern an object. (The infinitive is discussed more fully in #10.7.) 
4.48 THE PARTICIPLE: The participle is given here (#4.21) for the masculine, feminine and neuter nominative singular, and the masculine/neuter genitive singular. These are the only forms needed for the moment, and (as will be explained in #8.15) they enable the whole of a participle's flexions to be known. 
NOTE that the second aorist participle, infinitive, imperative forms take the neutral morph and therefore have the same endings as the present participle and infinitive, not those of the first aorist. As the aorist does not take an augment outside the indicative mode (#4.42), the second aorist form for the infinitive and participle will be without the augment. 
      For ἦλθον this gives ἐλθεῖν and ἐλθών, -ουσα, -ον; 
      and for εἶδον this gives ἰδεῖν and ἰδών, -ουσα, -ον; 
      but for εἶπον we find εἰπεῖν and εἰπών, -ουσα, -ον. 
NOTE (a) that the second aorist infinitive ends in -ειν, as does the present infinitive, rather than -σαι, like the first aorist infinitive; 
    (b) that the second aorist imperative endings are also similar to the present imperative of λύω. 

FOUR: THE RELATIVE PRONOUN AND THE ACTIVE VOICE 55 
4.49 THE NEGATIVE: The word οὐ/οὐκ/οὐχ/οὐχί (#2.94) is used as the negative with verbs in the indicative mode. A completely different word, μή, is used as the negative with all other modes. Both negatives go in front of the word to which they refer. The two words can be used together, in the order οὐ μή, as an emphatic negative, which is normally then followed by the subjunctive [sometimes by the subjunctival future, #4.76(d)]. 
4.5 LINGUISTIC MODIFICATION RULES 
4.50 Most verbs modify their lexals in taking the augment when the lexal begins with a vowel, and in adding a morph which is, or which begins with, a consonant. The rules are:
4.51 THE TEMPORAL AUGMENT RULE: Remember, those verbs with lexals which begin with a short vowel take the temporal augment (#3.63) to indicate past time. That is, for these verbs the augment is not an additive morph but a process morph: the changing of the short vowel to the corresponding long vowel. 

<table>
 <tr><td></td><td></td><th>Present</th><th>Imperfect</th></tr>
 <tr><td>If a lexal begins with α, it lengthens this to η.</td><td>Example:</td><td>ἀκούω</td><td>ἤκουον</td></tr>
 <tr><td>If a lexal begins with ε, it lengthens this to η.</td><td>Example:</td><td>ἐλπίζω</td><td>ἤλπιζον</td></tr>
 <tr><td>If a lexal begins with ο, it lengthens this to ω.</td><td>Example:</td><td>ὀφείλω</td><td>ὤφειλον</td></tr>
</table>

If the short vowel is part of a diphthong with iota, the short vowel lengthens in accordance with this rule and the iota becomes subscript. 

<table>
 <tr><td></td><td></td><th>Present</th><th>Imperfect</th></tr>
 <tr><td>If a lexal begins with αι, this diphthong becomes ῃ.</td><td>Example:</td><td>αἰτέω</td><td>ἤτουν</td></tr>
 <tr><td>If a lexal begins with ει, this diphthong becomes ῃ.</td><td>Example:</td><td>εἰκάζω</td><td>ᾔκαζον†</td></tr>
 <tr><td>If a lexal begins with οι, this diphthong becomes ῳ.</td><td>Example:</td><td>οἰκοδομέω</td><td>ᾠκοδόμουν</td></tr>
 <tr><td>There are a small number of verbs beginning with ε- which, for particular linguistic reasons (to be explained in #C8.7) lengthen the ε- to ει- instead of η-.</td><td>Example:</td><td>ἔχω</td><td>εἶχον</td></tr>
</table>

† There is no New Testament example from a verb commencing with ει-; for the sake of completeness of the pattern, this example has been drawn from a Greek verb used outside the New Testament, εἰκάζω, "I liken, compare, conjecture, imagine". The root εἰπ- does not lengthen its epsilon, but forms its aorist as εἶπον (#4.48). 
4.52 ADDING PREPOSITIONS: A preposition occupies the first of the verb's nine morph slots. When prepositions ending in a vowel (except πρό and περί) are added to a simplex verb to make a compound verb (see #3.7), the final vowel elides completely before a vowel (including the augment). The nine prepositions which elide their final vowel in this way (called the eliding prepositions) are: ἀνά, ἀντί, ἀπό, διά, ἐπί, κατά, μετά, παρά and ὑπό. When adding the preposition ἐκ/ἐξ, to a verb form beginning with a vowel (including the augment, which occupies Slot 3), it is ἐξ (#1 .75). 
4.53 SHORT VOWEL LENGTHENING RULE: Where a verb lexal ends in a short vowel, this vowel regularly lengthens when followed by a morph beginning with a consonant: 

<table>
<tr><td></td><td></td><th>Present</th><th>Future</th></tr>
<tr><td>If a lexal ends with α, it lengthens this to η.  </td><td>Example:</td><td>τιμάω</td><td>τιμήσω</td></tr>
<tr><td>If a lexal ends with ε, it lengthens this to η.  </td><td>Example:</td><td>λαλέω</td><td>λαλήσω</td></tr>
<tr><td>If a lexal ends with ο, it lengthens this to ω.  </td><td>Example:</td><td>πληρόω</td><td>πληρώσω</td></tr>
</table>
This is "the Short Vowel Lengthening Rule". 
4.54 AMALGAMATION RULES FOR LABIALS AND PALATALS: 
    (a) LABIAL AMALGAMATION RULE: When a verb lexal ends in a labial (π, β, φ, ψ: see #1.69), the labial combines with a following σ into ψ. Example: γράφω, future γράψω). 
    (b) PALATAL AMALGAMATION RULE: When a verb lexal ends in a palatal (κ, γ, χ, ξ, σσ: see #1.69), the palatal combines with a following σ into ξ. Example: ἄγω, future ἄξω.

56 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
4.55 DENTAL DROP-OUT RULE: 

<table>
 <tr><td>When a verb lexal ends in a dental (τ, δ, θ, ζ), the dental drops out before a following consonant.</td><td>Example: δοξάζω, perfect δεδόξακα.</td></tr>
 <tr><td>When a verb lexal ends in -πτ-, the -τ- drops out under this rule, and the -π- then combines with a following -σ- to give -ψ- in accordance with #4.54(a).</td><td>Example: καλύπτω, future καλύψω.</td></tr>
</table>

4.56 FUTURE OF LIQUID VERBS: When a verb lexal ends in a liquid (see #1.69), either oral (-λ-, -ρ-) or nasal (-μ-, -ν-), that verb (called a liquid verb after the final phoneme of its lexal) cannot add -σ- to the liquid: these phonemes — liquids and sigma — are not compatible in Greek. The liquid verbs form their future differently: 
    (a) A liquid verb adds -ε- as its future time morph instead of -σ-. The added -ε- then contracts with the vowel of the ending into a long vowel or diphthong. (See further, #A4.23. This contraction occurs in accordance with linguistic rules to be introduced later [#6.8].) 
    (b) If the lexal of the present tense ends in double -λ-, then outside the present and imperfect tenses the verb also drops the final lambda. 
    (c) If the lexal of the present tense has a diphthong in -ι- before the liquid, then outside the present and imperfect tenses it drops the iota. For examples of such verbs, see #4.59. 
4.57 AORIST OF LIQUID VERBS: The fact that a liquid verb cannot add sigma to its lexal also affects the formation of the aorist tense, which non-liquid verbs form by adding the morph -σα-. 
    (a) To form the aorist of a liquid verb: replace the future morph and neutral morph of the future tense with the aorist morph -α-, and prefix the augment. But then, because liquids and sigma are not compatible in Greek, the sigma of the -σα- slides off the liquid, leaving just the -a-as the aorist morph in such a word. However, if the lexal ends in -ε- plus ρ, λ, or ν, then in compensation for the loss of this -σ- it lengthens -ε- to -ει- before the liquid. The end result for these verbs is that their punctiliar morph (that is, what marks the punctiliar aspect, aorist tense) is the iota before the liquid plus the alpha after it [which can be written as ι.α, where the dot between -ι- and -α- represents the liquid]. For examples of such verbs, see #4.59. 
    (b) Note that when a verb lexal ends in a liquid, the third person singular form of the aorist will have no visible punctiliar morph: because it is a liquid, the -σ- of the punctiliar morph will have slid off, and because the ending added for the third person singular is a vowel, the -α- will have elided. Thus there is nothing in Slot 7 (between the lexal and the pronoun morph), where you would otherwise have expected an aspect morph. When there is nothing (zero) in a slot where some-thing was expected, that "zero" is itself informative. This is called the zero morph, written by the symbol Ø. Thus when a verb lexal ends in a liquid, and there is nothing (zero) in Slot 7, followed by the third person singular pronoun ending, this data informs you that the verb form is aorist. 
4.58 PERFECT OF LIQUID VERBS: If the lexal of a liquid verb in the future tense: 
(a) is a monosyllable (that is, not counting prepositions in a compound verb), and ends in -ε- plus the liquid, then that lexal changes the -ε- into -α- in forming its perfect. 
(b) ends in -ιν-, then the -ν- is dropped before the endings of the perfect. 
4.59 EXAMPLES: The following verbs illustrate these various linguistic modifications: 

<table>
 <tr><th>PRESENT</th><th>MEANING</th><th>FUTURE</th><th>FIRST AORIST</th><th>PERFECT</th></tr>
 <tr><td>σύρω</td><td>drag</td><td>συρέω</td><td>ἔσυρα</td><td>σέσυρκα</td></tr>
 <tr><td>σκύλλω</td><td>trouble</td><td>σκυλέω</td><td>ἔσκυλα</td><td>—</td></tr>
 <tr><td>φαίνω</td><td>shine/appear</td><td>φανέω</td><td>ἔφανα</td><td>—</td></tr>
 <tr><td>δέρω</td><td>thrash</td><td>δερέω</td><td>ἔδειρα</td><td>—</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἀγγέλλω</td><td>announce</td><td>ἀγγελέω</td><td>ἤγγειλα</td><td>ἤγγελκα</td></tr>
 <tr><td>στέλλω</td><td>send</td><td>στελέω</td><td>ἔστειλα</td><td>ἔσταλκα</td></tr>
 <tr><td>σπείρω</td><td>sow</td><td>σπερέω</td><td>ἔσπειρα</td><td>ἔσπαρκα</td></tr>
 <tr><td>κρίνω</td><td>judge</td><td>κρινέω</td><td>ἔκρινα</td><td>κέκρικα</td></tr>
</table>


FOUR: THE RELATIVE PRONOUN AND THE ACTIVE VOICE 57 
The -έω of the future forms then contracts in each instance into -ῶ. Fuller information about forming liquid verbs is given in #C1.81—C1.89. 
Some verbs exhibit various irregularities. For the present, these verbs are used only in forms which will be recognizable by these rules. 
4.6 DOUBLE MORPHS 
4.61 DOUBLE FUTURE MORPH: The verb θέλω ("I wish, want") adds a double future morph. In accordance with the rule for the future of liquid verbs, it adds -ε- to become "θελέω", and next it adds the usual -σ- (#4.22) as well, and then follows the Short Vowel Lengthening Rule (#4.53) to make its future θελήσω. (Several other liquid verbs also take this double future morph; they are listed in #C1.88.) 
4.62 DOUBLE AUGMENT: A small number of verbs take a double augment. Thus θέλω takes the syllabic augment (#3.62), giving "ἔθελον", and then takes the temporal augment (#3.63) to form its imperfect of ἤθελον. Similarly its aorist is ἠθέλησα (not "ἐθέλησα"). Other verbs taking a double augment are δύναμαι, "I am able", μέλλω, "I intend", and ὁράω, "I see". 
4.63 TRIPLE AUGMENT: ἀνοίγω ("I open") is a compound of ἀνά with οἴγω, and is double augmented in the aorist to ἀνέῳξα. Some writers have applied the temporal augment to the preposition, giving the form ἤνοιξα (which strictly speaking is grammatically incorrect, but shows that they thought of it not as a compound but as a simplex verb). These augmentations are also found combined together, so that the form ἠνέῳξα (triple augment!) also occurs in the New Testament. 
4.7 GUIDELINES ON HOW TO DECIPHER A VERB 
4.71 First, locate the verb. If it is not one you recognize at once, it can be identified (a) by its ending, which you know from your memorized paradigms (even if you don't know the rest of it); (b) because of a negative in front of it; or (c) by a process of elimination, because you recognize the words around it as nouns or other parts of speech. 
4.72 Does it have a reduplication in -ε-, on the model of λέλυκα? Then it is a present perfect (or a pluperfect if it also has an augment and/or the morph -ει- in its Slot 8). 
4.73 Does it have an augment? Remember (a) to look for the augment between the preposition and the verb lexal in compound words, and (b) that the augment may be contained in an initial long vowel or diphthong. If it has an augment, does it also have -σα- (or -σ- before a vowel) between the verb lexal and the ending? If so, it is a first aorist indicative. If not, then it is either a second or third aorist or an imperfect. Strip off the augment and ending, substitute -ω, and if it is an imperfect you should find your word now in the lexicon. If not, check it out as a second aorist: try it with the augment and the first person singular second aorist ending and see if that form is in the lexicon. If it is, it will tell you the corresponding first person singular of the present active. If you have no success with these efforts, go on to #4.74. 
4.74 Does it have -σα- (or -σ- before a vowel) between the lexal and the ending? If so, and it also has an augment, then it is a first aorist indicative. If it has -σ- but no augment, then it is either a future or a first aorist in a mode other than the indicative. Check to see if the endings are those of the future indicative or those of the aorist subjunctive, imperative, or infinitive. (Remember: that the future and the aorist subjunctive have the same form for the first person singular; that a future -σ- will always be followed by a neutral morph; that -σα- always indicates a first aorist.) But what verb does it come from? Strip off the -σα- or -σ- and the ending (and the augment, if any), substitute -w, and you should be able to find your word in the lexicon. If not, the probability is that this word is a dental lexal verb and the dental has dropped out before the -σ-, in accordance with


58 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
#4.55. So, restore the dental. Try each dental in turn until you find a word that is listed in your lexicon. Start with ζ first (there are 211 Greek New Testament verbs with present lexals ending in ζ; eight in δ; six in θ; and one in τ). 
4.75 It is important for deciphering a verb to be able to recognize and identify all the morphs of which it is composed. We can now add two extra morph slots — for the reduplication (Slot 3) and the future morph (Slot 6) — to the five we have already met in Lesson Three (#3.93). We should also NOTE (a) that the neutral morph (-ο/ε-), the punctiliar morph (-σα-) and the perfective active morph (-κα-) are alternatives in the aspect slot (Slot 7) — one or other of them will occur; (b) that when the neutral morph is lengthened this indicates subjunctive mode; and (c) that the aorist subjunctive thus requires both the punctiliar morph (which will not be -σα- but -σ- because it comes in front of a vowel) and the lengthened neutral morph. (This is the only circumstance in which two affix aspect morphs will occur together in Slot 7.) Moreover, the infinitive ending is an alternative to the pronoun ending: a verb will have one or the other. 
4.76 TRANSLATING THE FUTURE: The unifying idea of the future tense is that of expectation. Four types of future (identical in form) can be recognized from their context: 
    (a) Predictive Future (the most common kind): Translate as -will". The speaker is predicting what is going to happen. This may be a statement of the speaker's own intention ("Teacher, I will follow you" [Mt 8:19]), or of the speaker's expectation ("One of you will say to me ..." [Rom 9:19]). 
    (b) Prophetic Future: This is a promise made by the Lord or his prophet. The NRSV at times translates this as "shall": "Look, the virgin shall conceive and bear a son" (Matthew 1:23; similarly Matthew 2:6, etc.). 
    (c) Imperatival Future: a future form which has the force of an imperative (see #4.46). Translate "shall" ("You shall call his name Jesus" [Mt 1:21]; "You shall not steal ... You shall love your neighbour as yourself [Mt 19:18-19, NRSV]; "he shall be your servant" [Mk 10:43, L9/B9]). 
    (d) Subjunctival Future: occasionally a future will be used where you would expect a subjunctive (see #4.43-45; #4.49), and with subjunctive meaning. Translate "may", "might", "would", "should", or similarly. This use of the future can occur in constructions that normally require a subjunctive: after ἵνα (Gal 2:4; 1 Pet 3:1; Rev 3:9; 6:4; 6:11; 14:13; 22:14); and after ἐάν, μή, or μήποτε (Mt 7:6; Acts 8:31; Col 2:8; Heb 3:12); and with οὐ μή as an emphatic negating of the future (Mt 15:6; 16:22; 26:35; Mark 13:31; 14:31; Luke 21:33; John 4:14; 6:35; 10:5; 20:25; Gal 4:30; Heb 10:17; Rev 3:5; 9:6; 18:14). Example: Βλέπετε, ἀδελφοί, μήποτε ἔσται ἔν τινι ὑμῶν, "Watch out, brothers, lest there should be in any one of you ..." (Heb 3:12).
4.77 Here is the morphological analysis of a selection of forms from λύω (#4.21) and one from the compound ἀπολύω. Examine each form, identify what it is, and work out its meaning: 

<table>
 <tr><td></td><th>1</th><th>2</th><th>3</th><th>4</th><th>5</th><th>6</th><th>7</th><th>8</th><th>9</th></tr>
 <tr><th>VERB FORM</th><th>PREP.</th><th>PAST</th><th>REDUPLICATION</th><th>LEXAL</th><th></th><th>FUTURE</th><th>ASPECT</th><th></th><th>ENDING</th></tr>
 <tr><td>λύσω</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>λυ</td><td></td><td>σ</td><td>ο</td><td></td><td>L</td></tr>
 <tr><td>λύσω</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>λυ</td><td></td><td></td><td>σω</td><td></td><td>L</td></tr>
 <tr><td>λύσουσι(ν)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>λυ</td><td></td><td>σ</td><td>ο</td><td></td><td>υσιν</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἔλυε(ν)</td><td></td><td>ἐ</td><td></td><td>λυ</td><td></td><td></td><td>∅</td><td></td><td>ε(ν)</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἐλύομεν</td><td></td><td>ἐ</td><td></td><td>λυ</td><td></td><td></td><td>ο</td><td></td><td>μεν</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἔλυσα</td><td></td><td>ἐ</td><td></td><td>λυ</td><td></td><td></td><td>σα</td><td></td><td>∅</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἐλύσαμεν</td><td></td><td>ἐ</td><td></td><td>λυ</td><td></td><td></td><td>σα</td><td></td><td>μεν</td></tr>
 <tr><td>λελύκαμεν</td><td></td><td></td><td>λε</td><td>λυ</td><td></td><td></td><td>κα</td><td></td><td>μεν</td></tr>
 <tr><td>λύῃ</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>λυ</td><td></td><td></td><td>η</td><td></td><td>ι</td></tr>
 <tr><td>λύωμεν</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>λυ</td><td></td><td></td><td>ω</td><td></td><td>μεν</td></tr>
 <tr><td>λύσωμεν</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>λυ</td><td></td><td></td><td>ω</td><td></td><td>μεν</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἀπολῦσαι</td><td>ἀπο</td><td></td><td></td><td>λυ</td><td></td><td></td><td>σα</td><td></td><td>αι</td></tr>
 <tr><td>λελυκέναι</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>λυ</td><td></td><td></td><td>κε</td><td></td><td>ναι</td></tr>
</table>


FOUR: THE RELATIVE PRONOUN AND THE ACTIVE VOICE 59 
4.78 Slots 1, 4, 7 and 9 can be likened to multiposition switches (see #A3.37) — you can have any preposition in Slot 1, any lexal in Slot 4, one of the aspect morphs (neutral, punctiliar or perfective) in Slot 7, and a pronoun or infinitive ending in Slot 9. Slots 2, 3 and 6 are like simple on/off switches — when the morph is there, that switch is "on", and it switches the word to "past time", "perfect", or "future time" respectively.
4.8 USING THE GUIDELINES TO UNDERSTAND SOME VERBS IN THE SELECTIONS 
4.81 ἀνῆλθεν: The first part of the word is the preposition ἀνά, which has elided its final vowel when prefixed to a lexal commencing with a vowel (see #4.52). The main verb is then seen to be -ῆλθεν, which will be recognized as a form from the paradigm of ἦλθον (#3.81). (Selection B 14.) 
4.82 δεδουλεύκαμεν: The reduplication indicates that this is present perfect, confirmed by the -κα- between lexal and ending. The ending shows that the verb form is first person plural. Remove reduplication, perfective aspect morph, and ending, add -ω, and you have the lexical form, δουλεύω. (Selection B 10.) 
4.83 μὴ νομίσητε: The μή alerts you that the following word is likely to be a verb, and if so it will not be indicative mode (#4.49). The -σ- of νομίσητε indicates either the future or the aorist, the -η- after the -σ- shows it to be subjunctive. As there is no such tense as a future subjunctive, you check your paradigm pattern and confirm that it is first aorist subjunctive, the -τε ending identifying it as the second person plural. But of what verb? The lexal before the sigma is νομι-, so the verb could be νομίω. You check your wordlist and find that there is no such word. So it is either a dental lexal verb, with the dental having dropped out before sigma, or it is some irregular form. You check out the dental possibilities and discover that the verb is: νομίζω. You can now see that it is a negative second person plural aorist subjunctive, which (as per #4.46) is "The prohibition of an act not yet begun." Thus μὴ νομίσητε means, "Do not have the thought ...", "Do not imagine for a single moment ...". (Selection B 18.) 
4.84 Where Knowing Greek Makes a Difference: Always take careful note of the aspect of a verb, and take it into account in your translation, and for your understanding of a passage: sometimes the aspect chosen by the author can make a significant difference to the meaning of what he is saying. Thus in 1 John 3:9 we read, "Whoever has been born of God does not sin, for his seed remains in him; and he cannot sin, because he has been born of God." [NKJV.] This passage has caused considerable concern to many Christians who know they have been born again, and yet are aware that they have fallen into sin. If you know Greek, you will recognize that John here is using durative aspect, referring to an ongoing situation: "No one who is born of God will continue To sin, because God's seed remains in him; he cannot go on sinning, because he has been born of God." [NIV.] The passage is not speaking of an isolated act of sin, but of a continuing to live in sin: it is this which is incompatible with Christian profession. Again: in Ephesians 5:18 Paul instructs, "Be filled with the Spirit". He could have chosen to use punctiliar aspect (the aorist imperative), hich would have emphasized the fact of the filling, and could have been taken to refer to a once-for-all experience of Spirit-filling. Instead, Paul chose to use durative aspect (the present imperative), thus speaking of a repeated and ongoing filling: "Be continuously being filled with the Spirit." 
4.9 NOTES FOR THE SELECTIONS 
4.91 Verbs with lexals ending in -ε- (a) absorb this -ε- into a following long vowel or diphthong ending, and (b) contract this -ε- with a following -ε- into the diphthong -ει-. (Other types of contraction will be explained in #6.8.) 

60 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
4.92 The infinitive after ἐν τῷ expresses the time at or during which the action occurred; it can be translated "when ..." or "while ..." (verb action). (Selection B20.) 
4.93 The article plus δέ can be used on its own as the subject of a sentence, referring to someone previously mentioned. Thus ὁ δὲ ..., "and he ...". (See #1.83.) (Selection B20.) 
4.94 NOTE another pair of words differentiated by their accent. We have met ἀλλά, "but", in L2/B20; ἄλλος (introduced in L4/B15) has the nominative/accusative neuter plural form ἄλλα, differing from ἀλλά only in its accent. 
4.95 There will be occasions when the aorist is best rendered into English by the present perfect, where Greek focusses on the act and English on the consequence. For example: Ἐχθρὸς ἄνθρωπος τοῦτο ἐποίησεν — "some enemy has done this". (ἐχθρὸς ἄνθρωπος = a hostile man, an enemy.) (Selection B20.) 
ASSIGNMENTS ON LESSON FOUR 
1. PARADIGMS FOR LEARNING: The paradigms to be learnt by heart this Lesson are:
    7. The first aorist indicative active of λύω (ἔλυσα, #4.21);
    8. The forms of the present active imperative, infinitive and participle of λύω (#4.21).
    9. The forms of the first aorist active imperative, infinitive and participle of λύω (#4.21). 
2. LEARNING THE OTHER FLEXIONS OF THE ACTIVE VERB: Compare the flexion of λύσω (future) with the present tense (#2.81); the flexion of the perfect, λέλυκα, with the first aorist, ἔλυσα; the imperfect, ἔλυον, with the second aorist, ἔβαλον (#3.81), and the flexions of the present and aorist subjunctive with each other and with the present indicative, λύω (#2.81). Learn these various flexions of λύω by noting the similarities and differences seen in your comparisons, and the significance of the differences. 
3. APPENDIX: READ CAREFULLY the additional information set out in the Appendix, #A4. 
4. WORKBOOK: ANSWER THE QUESTIONS in your Workbook about this Lesson. 
5. TRANSLATION EXERCISES A AND B: Do the English into Greek exercises, and then read and translate literally all the Selections from the Greek New Testament. Make sure that you continue to read each Selection aloud before translating it, to help cultivate your "feel" for the Greek. 
NOTE: To do this work you will need to use the paradigms set for learning this Lesson, together with the paradigms and vocabulary of the previous Lessons. The new prepositions given below, and the cases they take, should be carefully noted. Most of the Selections introduce new vocabulary which is then used again in the Selections which follow. LEARN each unknown word as you use it. 
6. VOCABULARY CARDS: Continue the practice of writing out Vocabulary Cards for the new words introduced in this Lesson, putting 4 (for "Lesson 4") in the top lefthand corner of each side of the Card. Make out the card for each new word as you come to it in the Sentences below; you will need some words for several Sentences. Add these Cards to your collection, and place them all in alphabetical order. (Don't forget to put on your Card the case(s) taken by each preposition.) 
7. ABBREVIATIONS IN THE NOTES (BELOW): see page 12. 

FOUR: THE RELATIVE PRONOUN AND THE ACTIVE VOICE 61 
PREPOSITIONS 

<table>
 <tr><td><table><tr><td>ἀνά (+acc) up</td><td>*διά (+gen) through</td></tr><tr><td>κατέναντι (+gen) opposite   </td><td>*πρός (+acc) to, towards, at, with, because of</td></tr></table></td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἐγγύς (+gen) near, close by (also used as an adverb, not governing a noun)</td></tr>
</table>


A. TRANSLATION FROM ENGLISH INTO GREEK 
(This may be done as an exercise in class at the end of the Lesson, or set as an assignment.) 

<table>
 <tr><td></td><th>SENTENCES</th><th>NOTES AND NEW WORDS</th></tr>
 <tr><th>A1.</th><td>"Release Barabbas for us." (Luke 23:18)</td><td>release: *ἀπολύω; Barabbas: Βαραββᾶς</td></tr>
 <tr><th>A2.</th><td>And they said to him, "Believe upon the Lord Jesus, and you (sg emphatic) will be saved." (Acts 16:31)</td><td>you (sg) will be saved: σωθήσῃ</td></tr>
 <tr><th>A3.</th><td>Pilate then says to him, "I have authority to release you." (John 19:10)</td><td>authority: * ἐξουσία, -ας, ἡ</td></tr>
 <tr><th>A4.</th><td>Jesus says to them, "Do you believe that I am able to do this thing?" (Matthew 9:28)</td><td>I am able: *δύναμαι; do, make, carry out, practise: *ποιέω</td></tr>
 <tr><th>A5.</th><td>They say to him, "Yes, Lord." (Matt 9:28)</td><td>yes: ναί</td></tr>
 <tr><th>A6.</th><td>"Saul, Saul, why are you persecuting me?" (Acts 26:14)</td><td>Saul: Σαούλ; persecute: διώκω</td></tr>
 <tr><th>A7.</th><td>"Who are you, Lord?" (Acts 26:15)</td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><th>A8.</th><td>"I (emphatic) am Jesus whom you (emphatic) are persecuting." (Acts 26:15)</td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><th>A9.</th><td>For not even his brothers believed in him. (John 7:5)</td><td>not even (neither, nor): *οὐδέ; in: *εἰς</td></tr>
 <tr><th>A10.</th><td>"Lord, Lord, open up for us." (Matt 25:11)</td><td>open, open up: *ἀνοίγω</td></tr>
 <tr><th>A11.</th><td>"Sir, we wish to see Jesus." (John 12:21)</td><td>wish, want: *θέλω; see: *εἶδον (aorist²)</td></tr>
 <tr><th>A12.</th><td>The man believed the word which Jesus said to him. (John 4:50)</td><td>believe: *πιστεύω (takes dative); which: relative pronoun (see #4.13-4.17)</td></tr>
</table>


B. SELECTIONS FROM THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 

<table>
 <tr><th></th><th>SELECTIONS</th><th>ADDITIONAL VOCABULARY</th></tr>
 <tr><td>B1.</td><td>Κύριε, σῶσόν με. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 14:30)</td><td>*σῴζω: save, rescue, deliver, cure</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B2.</td><td>Ἦν δὲ ἐγγὺς τὸ Πάσχα τῶν Ἰουδαίων· (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 11:55)</td><td>πάσχα, τό (indecl.): the passover</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B3.</td><td>εἰρήνην τὴν ἐμὴν δίδωμι ὑμῖν· (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 14:27)</td><td>*δίδωμι: I give</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B4.</td><td>καὶ ἦλθον εἰς Βηθσφαγὴ πρὸς τὸ ὄρος τῶν Ἐλαιῶν. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 21:1)</td><td>Βηθσφαγή, ἡ (indecl.): Bethphage; *ὄρος, -ους, τό: mountain; ἐλαία, -ας, ἡ: olive (tree)</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B5.</td><td>Καὶ ἦν κηρύσσων ἐν ταῖς συναγωγαῖς αὐτῶν εἰς ὅλην τὴν Γαλιλαίαν, καὶ τὰ δαιμόνια ἐκβάλλων. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΡΚΟΝ 1:39)</td><td>κηρύσσων: preaching; *συναγωγή, synagogue; ἐκβάλλων: driving out</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B6.</td><td>καὶ σύ ποτε ἐπιστρέψας στήριξον τοὺς ἀδελφούς σου. (ΚΑΤΑ ΛΟΥΚΑΝ 22:32)</td><td>ἐπιστρέφω: return, turn around; ποτε: once; στηρίζω: strengthen</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B7.</td><td>Καὶ ἐγγὺς ἦν τὸ Πάσχα τῶν Ἰουδαίων, καὶ ἀνέβη εἰς Ἱεροσόλυμα ὁ Ἰησοῦς. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 2:13)</td><td>ἀνέβη: (he) went up; Ἱεροσόλυμα, -ων, τά: Jerusalem</td></tr>
</table>


62 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 

<table>
 <tr><th></th><th>SELECTIONS</th><th>ADDITIONAL VOCABULARY</th></tr>
 <tr><td>B8.</td><td>τὰ ῥήματα ἃ ἐγὼ λαλῶ ὑμῖν, πνεῦμά ἐστιν καὶ ζωή ἐστιν. Ἀλλ’ εἰσὶν ἐξ ὑμῶν τινες οἳ οὐ πιστεύουσιν. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 6:63-64)</td><td>Re ῥήματα: see #3.4; *λαλέω: speak; Re ἐστιν: see #2.17(a); ἀλλ’=ἀλλά [see #1.81(e)]; τινες some (people)</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B9.</td><td>Ἐγὼ δὲ ὅτι τὴν ἀλήθειαν λέγω, οὐ πιστεύετέ μοι. Τίς ἐξ ὑμῶν ἐλέγχει με περὶ ἁμαρτίας; Εἰ δὲ ἀλήθειαν λέγω, διὰ τί ὑμεῖς οὐ πιστεύετέ μοι; (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 8:45-46)</td><td>*εἰ: if; διὰ τί why?</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B10.</td><td>Σπέρμα Ἀβραάμ ἐσμεν, καὶ οὐδενὶ δεδουλεύκαμεν πώποτε· (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 8:33)</td><td>οὐδενί: to no one; δουλεύω: be a slave, enslaved; πώποτε: at any time</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B11.</td><td>Ἦν δὲ ἡ Βηθανία ἐγγὺς τῶν Ἱεροσολύμων· (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 11:18)</td><td>Βηθανία, ἡ: Bethany</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B12.</td><td>Εἶπεν αὐτῇ ὁ Ἰησοῦς, Ἐγώ εἰμι ἡ ἀνάστασις καὶ ἡ ζωή· ... Πιστεύεις τοῦτο; Λέγει αὐτῷ, Ναί, Κύριε· ἐγὼ πεπίστευκα, ὅτι σὺ εἶ ὁ χριστός, ὁ υἱὸς τοῦ θεοῦ (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 11:25-27)</td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><td>B13.</td><td>Ἄγουσιν αὐτὸν πρὸς τοὺς Φαρισαίους, τόν ποτε τυφλόν. Ἦν δὲ σάββατον ὅτε τὸν πηλὸν ἐποίησεν ὁ Ἰησοῦς, καὶ ἀνέῳξεν αὐτοῦ τοὺς ὀφθαλμούς. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 9:13-14)</td><td>Φαρισαῖος, -ου, ὁ: a Pharisee; *τυφλός -ή -όν: blind (person); πηλός, -οῦ, ὁ: clay, mud; *ὀφθαλμός, -οῦ, ὁ: eye</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B14.</td><td>Ἀνῆλθεν δὲ εἰς τὸ ὄρος ὁ Ἰησοῦς, καὶ ἐκεῖ ἐκάθητο μετὰ τῶν μαθητῶν αὐτοῦ. Ἦν δὲ ἐγγὺς τὸ Πάσχα, ἡ ἑορτὴ τῶν Ἰουδαίων. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 6:3-4)</td><td>ἀνῆλθεν: I went up; ἐκάθητο: (he) sat/was sitting (down); ἑορτή, -ῆς, ἡ, feast</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B15.</td><td>Ἔλεγον δὲ πολλοὶ ἐξ αὐτῶν, Δαιμόνιον ἔχει καὶ μαίνεται· τί αὐτοῦ ἀκούετε; Ἄλλοι ἔλεγον , Ταῦτα τὰ ῥήματα οὐκ ἔστιν δαιμονιζομένου · μὴ δαιμόνιον δύναται τυφλῶν ὀφθαλμοὺς ἀνοίγειν; (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 10:20-21)</td><td>πολλοί: many; μαίνεται: he is raving mad; *ἄλλος -η -ο: (an)other; δαιμονιζόμενος: a demon-possessed man; δύναται: he is able</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B16.</td><td>ἦλθεν ὁ Ἰησοῦς καὶ ἔστη εἰς τὸ μέσον, καὶ λέγει αὐτοῖς, Εἰρήνη ὑμῖν. ... Εἶπεν οὖν αὐτοῖς ὁ Ἰησοῦς πάλιν, Εἰρήνη ὑμῖν· (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 20:19, 21)</td><td>ἔστη: (he) stood</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B17.</td><td>Πιστὸς δέ ἐστιν ὁ κύριος, ὃς στηρίξει ὑμᾶς καὶ φυλάξει ἀπὸ τοῦ πονηροῦ. (ΠΡΟΣ ΘΕΣΣΑΛΟΝΙΚΕΙΣ Β, 3:3)</td><td>*πιστός -ή -όν: faithful, reliable, trustworthy; στηρίζω: future ⟶ στηρίξω); φυλάσσω: guard, keep</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B18.</td><td>Μὴ νομίσητε ὅτι ἦλθον καταλῦσαι τὸν νόμον ἢ τοὺς προφήτας· οὐκ ἦλθον καταλῦσαι ἀλλὰ πληρῶσαι. Ἀμὴν γὰρ λέγω ὑμῖν, ἕως ἂν παρέλθῃ ὁ οὐρανὸς καὶ ἡ γῆ, ἰῶτα ἓν ἢ μία κεραία οὐ μὴ παρέλθῃ ἀπὸ τοῦ νόμου, ἕως ἂν πάντα γένηται. Ὃς ἐὰν οὖν λύσῃ μίαν τῶν ἐντολῶν τούτων τῶν ἐλαχίστων, καὶ διδάξῃ οὕτως τοὺς ἀνθρώπους, ἐλάχιστος κληθήσεται ἐν τῇ βασιλείᾳ τῶν οὐρανῶν· ὃς δ’ ἂν ποιήσῃ καὶ διδάξῃ, οὗτος μέγας κληθήσεται ἐν τῇ βασιλείᾳ τῶν οὐρανῶν. Λέγω γὰρ ὑμῖν ὅτι ἐὰν μὴ περισσεύσῃ ἡ δικαιοσύνη ὑμῶν πλεῖον τῶν γραμματέων καὶ Φαρισαίων, οὐ μὴ εἰσέλθητε εἰς τὴν βασιλείαν τῶν οὐρανῶν. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 5:17-20)</td><td>νομίζω: think, suppose; καταλύω: do away with, destroy; *πληρόω: accomplish, fulfil; *γάρ: for; *ἕως: until; *ἄν: ever (indicating indefiniteness); παρῆλθον: I passed away; ἰῶτα, τό (indecl): iota, jot, smallest letter; *εἷς, μία, ἕν, one (the number); κεραία, -ας, ἡ: stroke of a letter; πάντα all, everything; γένηται: happens, is accomplished; *ἐάν: ever, if (ever); *ἐντολή, -ῆς, ἡ: commandment; ἐλάχιστος -ίστη -ον: least; *διδάσκω (aorist ἐδίδαξα): teach; *οὕτως: thus, so; κληθήσεται: (he) shall be called; δ’ = δέ [see #1.81(e)]; *μέγας, μεγάλη, μέγα: great; ἐάν μή: except, unless; περισσεύω: exceed, overflow; *δικαιοσύνη, -ης, ἡ: righteousness; *πλείων, πλεῖον (+gen): more (than); *γραμματεύς, -έως, ὁ: scribe; *εἰσῆλθον: I entered (aor²) </td></tr>
</table>

FOUR: THE RELATIVE PRONOUN AND THE ACTIVE VOICE 63 

<table>
 <tr><th></th><th>SELECTIONS</th><th>ADDITIONAL VOCABULARY</th></tr>
 <tr><td>B19.</td><td>καὶ ἠκολούθησαν αὐτῷ ὄχλοι πολλοί, καὶ ἐθεράπευσεν αὐτοὺς πάντας, καὶ ἐπετίμησεν αὐτοῖς, ἵνα μὴ φανερὸν αὐτὸν ποιήσωσιν· ὅπως πληρωθῇ τὸ ῥηθὲν διὰ Ἠσαΐου τοῦ προφήτου, λέγοντος, Ἰδού, ὁ παῖς μου ὃν ᾑρέτισα· ὁ ἀγαπητός μου εἰς ὃν εὐδόκησεν ἡ ψυχή μου ·(ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 12:15-18)</td><td>*ἀκολουθέω: follow; θεραπεύω: heal, cure; ἐπιτιμάω: command, order; *ἵνα: in order that, that; φανερός -ά -όν: known; πληρωθῇ: (it) might be fulfilled; τὸ ῥηθέν: what was said/spoken; παῖς, παιδός, ὁ/ἡ: servant, child; αἱρετίζω: choose, appoint; εὐδοκέω: take delight in</td></tr>
</table>


SUPPLEMENTARY PASSAGES 


<table>
 <tr><th></th><th>SELECTIONS</th><th>ADDITIONAL VOCABULARY</th></tr>
 <tr><td>B20.</td><td>Ὡμοιώθη ἡ βασιλεία τῶν οὐρανῶν ἀνθρώπῳ σπείροντι καλὸν σπέρμα ἐν τῷ ἀγρῷ αὐτοῦ· ἐν δὲ τῷ καθεύδειν τοὺς ἀνθρώπους, ἦλθεν αὐτοῦ ὁ ἐχθρὸς καὶ ἔσπειρεν ζιζάνια ἀνὰ μέσον τοῦ σίτου, καὶ ἀπῆλθεν. Ὅτε δὲ ἐβλάστησεν ὁ χόρτος καὶ καρπὸν ἐποίησεν, τότε ἐφάνη καὶ τὰ ζιζάνια. Προσελθόντες δὲ οἱ δοῦλοι τοῦ οἰκοδεσπότου εἶπον αὐτῷ, Κύριε, οὐχὶ καλὸν σπέρμα ἔσπειρας ἐν τῷ σῷ ἀγρῷ; Πόθεν οὖν ἔχει ζιζάνια; Ὁ δὲ ἔφη αὐτοῖς, Ἐχθρὸς ἄνθρωπος τοῦτο ἐποίησεν. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 13:24-28)</td><td>ὡμοιώθη: may be compared; σπείροντι: sowing; καθεύδω: sleep; ἐχθρός -ά -όν: enemy, hated; ἐπισπείρω: sow over, resow; ἀνὰ μέσον: up the middle (= amongst); σῖτος, -ου, ὁ: wheat; ἀπῆλθον: I went away, departed; *ὅτε: when; βλαστάω: sprout; χόρτος, -ου, ὁ: plant, grass; *καρπός[1], -οῦ, ὁ: fruit; *τότε: then; ἐφάνη: (it) appeared; προσῆλθον: I approached; *δοῦλος, -ου, ὁ: slave; οἰκοδεσπότης, -ου, ὁ: master; *σπείρω: sow</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B21.</td><td>υἱὸς Τιμαίου Βαρτίμαιος ὁ τυφλὸς ἐκάθητο παρὰ τὴν ὁδὸν προσαιτῶν. Καὶ ἀκούσας ὅτι Ἰησοῦς ὁ Ναζωραῖός ἐστιν, ἤρξατο κράζειν καὶ λέγειν, Ὁ υἱὸς Δαυίδ, Ἰησοῦ, ἐλέησόν με. Καὶ ἐπετίμων αὐτῷ πολλοί, ἵνα σιωπήσῃ· ὁ δὲ πολλῷ μᾶλλον ἔκραζεν, Υἱὲ Δαυίδ, ἐλέησόν με. Καὶ στὰς ὁ Ἰησοῦς εἶπεν αὐτὸν φωνηθῆναι· καὶ φωνοῦσιν τὸν τυφλόν, λέγοντες αὐτῷ, Θάρσει· ἔγειραι, φωνεῖ σε. Ὁ δὲ ἀποβαλὼν τὸ ἱμάτιον αὐτοῦ ἀναστὰς ἦλθεν πρὸς τὸν Ἰησοῦν. Καὶ ἀποκριθεὶς λέγει αὐτῷ ὁ Ἰησοῦς, Τί θέλεις ποιήσω σοί; Ὁ δὲ τυφλὸς εἶπεν αὐτῷ, Ῥαββουνί, ἵνα ἀναβλέψω. Ὁ δὲ Ἰησοῦς εἶπεν αὐτῷ , Ὕπαγε · ἡ πίστις σου σέσωκέν σε. Καὶ εὐθέως ἀνέβλεψεν, καὶ ἠκολούθει τῷ Ἰησοῦ ἐν τῇ ὁδῷ . Καὶ ὅτε ἐγγίζουσιν εἰς Ἱερουσαλήμ, εἰς Βηθσφαγὴ καὶ Βηθανίαν, πρὸς τὸ ὄρος τῶν Ἐλαιῶν, ἀποστέλλει δύο τῶν μαθητῶν αὐτοῦ, καὶ λέγει αὐτοῖς, Ὑπάγετε εἰς τὴν κώμην τὴν κατέναντι ὑμῶν· καὶ εὐθέως εἰσπορευόμενοι εἰς αὐτὴν εὑρήσετε πῶλον δεδεμένον, ἐφ’ ὃν οὐδεὶς ἀνθρώπων κεκάθικεν· λύσαντες αὐτὸν ἀγάγετε. Καὶ ἐάν τις ὑμῖν εἴπῃ, Τί ποιεῖτε τοῦτο; Εἴπατε, ὅτι Ὁ κύριος αὐτοῦ χρείαν ἔχει· καὶ εὐθέως αὐτὸν ἀποστέλλει ὧδε. Ἀπῆλθον δὲ καὶ εὗρον πῶλον δεδεμένον πρὸς τὴν θύραν ἔξω ἐπὶ τοῦ ἀμφόδου, καὶ λύουσιν αὐτόν. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΡΚΟΝ 10:46-11:4)</td><td>ἐλεάω: be merciful (to); φωνέω: call, call out; ἀποκριθείς: answering; ῥαββουνί: Rabbi; ἀναβλέπω: see again; *ὑπάγω: I go (one's way); ἐγγίζω: come near; κώμη, -ης, ἡ: village; *εὑρίσκω: find; πῶλος, -ου, ὁ: colt; *φέρω: bring; *ἐάν: if (ever); * τις (without accent): anyone, someone, a certain; χρεία, -ας, ἡ: need; *ὧδε: here</td></tr>
</table>

</div>

<div id="L5" class="Lesson">
LESSON FIVE 
THE THIRD DECLENSION 
5.1 HOW TO FIND YOUR WAY THROUGH THE THIRD DECLENSION (D3) 
5.11 Many students find the Third Declension (D3) to be the hardest part of Greek to be mastered. There are so many Third Declension words and they decline so differently from each other that this Declension seems to look like a grabbag of whatever is left over from the First and Second Declensions rather than an orderly pattern. The forms of many words are unexpected and their behaviour is sometimes quite unpredictable. Twenty different standard paradigms exist, and many of them are followed by only two or three words in the New Testament — or maybe by just one word. In addition, there are a large number of common irregular words. To master the Third Declension seems like a great deal of work. 
5.12 It is: but only if the aim is to be able to write in New Testament Greek. Even the Greeks themselves got lost in the Third Declension at times, and in the general Greek literature (and on occasions in the New Testament too) various alternatives are found for some of the normal case forms of some D3 words. 
5.13 However, our aim is a more modest one: to be able to recognize and identify words of the Third Declension when we come across them in reading the Greek New Testament. It is much easier to identify forms when we encounter them than to be able to predict what a particular case will be. 
5.14 Third Declension paradigms divide up into those for words with vowel stems, and those for words with consonant stems. Each of these subdivides again into masculine/feminine paradigms, and neuter paradigms. There are four basic paradigms for Third Declension words: 

<table>
 <tr><td></td><th>MASC./FEM.</th><th>NEUTER</th></tr>
 <tr><th>Vowel Stem:</th><td>ἰχθύς</td><td>γένος</td></tr>
 <tr><th>Consonant Stem:</th><td>σάρξ</td><td>σῶμα</td></tr>
</table>

5.15 The other paradigms (there are twenty altogether) differ from these four mainly as a result of the changes which occur because of the phoneme(s) with which their stems end — these changes can be explained on the basis of six descriptive rules. Some sample paradigms are given here to illustrate these rules; the full twenty are set out in the Appendix, #D3. 
5.2 THIRD DECLENSION VOWEL STEMS 
5.20 Third Declension nouns with vowel stems vary in behaviour depending upon the vowel itself, and how it reacts with the endings that are added. There are five standard paradigm patterns — four for masculine/feminine nouns, and the other for neuter nouns. These are set out here, together with a listing of the endings, and of the Second Declension paradigm for comparison: 
64 

FIVE: THE THIRD DECLENSION 65 
SECOND THIRD DECLENSION VOWEL STEMS DECLENSION Endings D3.1 fish D3.2 city D3.3 ox D3.4 king D3.5 race 6 izthjg r) goat 6 Pag 6 PaczA.E15g To yvog. SN K-Optog -g izatjg rratc Poi)g Pao. 1,A.Eljg yevog ✓ tc6piE izOij goAt Poi) Pact2,Ef) — A lcOptov -v ixthiv galv Por)v Paccaea *og G K-vpiov -og ixt9Uog goAEca-,- Poog Pao-aecog yevovg D ?civic!) -i ixat'li 7r6A,Et Poi f3a6t2zi yvet PN Kfiptot -Eg ixt9I')Eg go2LEtc P6Eg Pacraeig *yri A Kvpioug -ag izatjag n-o)Lag f36ag Pao- 1A,Eig yew] G Kupiwv -cov izatjaw 7r6Aecov f3o6iv Pao-aecov yevecov D IcOptotc -cri(v) izaijo-t(y) goAzo-t(v) f3ovai(v) Pao-aEf)o-t(v) yeveo-t(v)
POINTS TO BE NOTED concerning these paradigms: 
5.21 The Second and Third Declensions have a separate form for the vocative singular. For the Third Declension, this is usually the word stem (frequently minus the final consonant of a consonant stem when this is other than "p" or "v"). (If a dash, — , is put for the vocative in any of these paradigms it does not mean that that type of word can have no vocative, but that the nominative form is used as the vocative.)
5.22 The dative plural ending is -at (v), with a movable nu. 
5.23 NOTE: The stem of a Third Declension noun is usually found by removing -og from the genitive singular. The endings are then added to this stem. The izO6c paradigm retains the vowel of its stem unchanged throughout, and simply adds the endings. LEARN this paradigm. In the other vowel stem paradigms the basic endings have become modified through amalgamation with the vowel of the stem ("contraction") – an explanation of what has happened will be given later (#D3); it is sufficient to note these other paradigms at this stage. 
5.24 The 13ao-tAetjg paradigm takes the ending "-a" for the accusative singular, which (as we shall see in #5.30) is the ending for Third Declension consonant stem words. In the accusative plural, nouns of this group can also be found with the ending "-ag" (like ix0'6ag) as an alternative to the normal "-Etc" (like raetc). 
5.25 The yevog paradigm follows the invariable pattern of all neuters in having the same form for nominative and accusative. At first sight it may appear to depart from the pattern that neuters always end in "-a" in nominative and accusative plural. In fact the "-a" is there, but disguised, having contracted with the "-E" of the stem to produce "-ri". 
5.26 Sometimes nouns of the yevog paradigm will have genitive plural forms in "-ewv", but usually they are contracted to "-Oiv", e.g. yEvo5v. 
5.27 Compare and contrast the Second and Third Declension forms. One potential source of confusion for students is to misread a Third Declension neuter as a Second Declension masculine and thus to take a noun in "-ovg" as being accusative plural (like the form K-vpiovg) rather than genitive singular. Again, it is necessary to distinguish carefully the neuter plural form in "-I-7" from the First Declension nominative singular of words of the ocovrj paradigm. 

66 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
5.3 THIRD DECLENSION MASCULINE AND FEMININE CONSONANT STEMS 
5.30 Third Declension nouns with consonant stems have the same pattern of endings as those v, vowel stems, except for the one difference that the masculine/feminine accusative singular ending is "-α", not "-ν". The final consonant of the stem interacts with the endings and this gives the different subgroups of masculine and feminine nouns. There is one main paradigm for neuter nouns with consonant stems. In all these paradigms the stem of the word shows up clearly in the genitive singular, which is always given in a lexicon together with the nominative singular. The masculine/feminine paradigms are: 

<table>
 <tr><td> </td><th>Endings</th><th>D3.6 flesh</th><th>D3.8 child</th><th>D3.11 saviour</th><th>D3.12 star</th><th>D3.16</th></tr>
 <tr><td> </td><td> </td><td>ἡ σάρξ</td><td></td><td>ὁ σωτήρ</td><td style = "text-align: center;">ὁ ἀστήρ</td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><td> </td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><th style = "text-align: right;">SN</th><td></td><td>σάρξ</td><td></td><td></td><td>ἀστήρ</td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><th style = "text-align: right;">A</th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>ἀστέρα</td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><th style = "text-align: right;">G</th><td></td><td>σαρκός</td><td></td><td>σωτῆρος</td><td>ἀστέρος</td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><th style = "text-align: right;">D</th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>ἀστέρι</td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><th style = "text-align: right;">PN</th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>ἀστέρες</td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><th style = "text-align: right;">A</th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>ἀστέρας</td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><th style = "text-align: right;">G</th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>ἀστέρων</td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><th style = "text-align: right;">D</th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>[ἀστράσι(ν)]</td><td></td></tr>
</table>

7j craps 6 WI wig-SN -g cai4 Kai; A -a captca raf6a G -og crapKog gatodc D -1 capici rat& PN -EC capiag Irafaeg A -ac capicag iraiZac G -coy capicav raiSow D -at (v) capi(v) rato-i(v)
o cwzrip ccovip con 'Oa cca-Mpoc carriipt contipec conlipag o-conjpow [o-an- "riper t (v)]
o acrrjp actrip acrepa dcrepog decthpi dearepEc acrepag decrepow [acrepct(v)]
leader r)yEitiojv flyepo:w nyeauova rjyepoyoc riyep,ovt rjyegovEg ilye,uovac ijyepovaw '4yeuoct(v)
5.31 No separate form for the vocative is given, as occurrences of this are rare. When it does occur, it usually conforms to the principle set out in #5.21 (e.g. in Attic Greek, raf, cro5zep — note the short -E-). The forms in square brackets are uncertain — see #D3.11 and #D3.12. 5.32 The paradigms of this Declension arise when stems and endings combine according to linguistic rules (see #4.5). Examples of how the different paradigms arise from the application of these rules are given here — for the other paradigms referred to, see Appendix D, #D3.
5.33 RULE ONE: SIGMA AMALGAMATES WITH PALATALS AND LABIALS: A sigma ending amalgamates with a palatal (#1.69) stem into (example: Paradigm D3.6, crapes plus --> cap); and with a labial (#1.69) stem into tif (example: Paradigm D3.7, /1i0- plus 
5.34 RULE TWO: DENTALS DROP OUT BEFORE SIGMA: When the stem ends in a dental (#1.69), this dental drops out when a sigma ending is added. (Example: Paradigm D3.8, 7raf,(5- plus mfg.) 
5.35 RULE THREE: SIGMA ALONE SLIDES OFF A RHO: When a noun stem ends in the oral liquid -p, the -g ending for the nominative singular slides off the rho and disappears. (Example: Paradigm D3.11, o-carrip- plus -g --> carrjp.) On the other hand, the dative plural ending is not sigma alone but -o-t (v), and this ending is added to the stem in the usual way. (Example: Paradigm D3.11, confjpat(v).) (Some irregular forms of the dative plural are found in practice.) 
5.36 RULE FOUR: COMPENSATORY LENGTHENING FOR STEM CONSONANT LOSS: When as a result of any of these rules one or more stem consonants have been lost from a nominative singular form, or two stein consonants have been lost from a dative plural form, then there is compensatory lengthening of the preceding vowel: -E- lengthens to -El-, and -o- lengthens to -ov-. (Example: Paradigm D3.8, go6- plus -c —> first of all "Troy" by Rule Two, and then Iroi4-, by this Rule.) NOTE that this Rule does not apply when sigma slides off a liquid (in accordance with Rule Three or Rule Five), because sigma is an ending not a stein consonant, and therefore does not fill the requirement; and similarly this Rule does not apply when only one stem consonant has been lost from the dative plural. 

FIVE: THE THIRD DECLENSION 67 
5.37 RULE FIVE: NU AND SIGMA INCOMPATIBILITY RULE: 
(a) The phonemes nu and sigma are incompatible in Greek, so that the sequence -νσ- or -νς does not occur in a Greek word. When the ending -ς is to be added to a stem which ends in -ν-, they cannot occur together and therefore one or the other of them is forced out of the word. 
(b) Where a sigma alone is being added to a nu stem, usually the sigma slides off and disappears, in the same way as for rho stem words (#5.35). (Example: Paradigm D3.15, μην- plus -ς ⟶ μήν, because the sigma ending slides off and disappears.) 
(c) In some words the sigma wins out and it is the nu which is lost from the word. (Example: Paradigm D3.20, ἱμαντ- plus -ς ⟶ first of all "
ἱμαντς" and then by Rule Two "ἱμανς", and then ἱμάς.) If the preceding vowel is -ε- or -ο-, then when the stem letter nu is lost, this vowel will lengthen in accordance with Rule Four. (Examples: Paradigm D6.7, ἑν- plus becomes "ἑνς" and in this word it is the nu which is forced out, giving "ἑς"; and then under Rule Four this will become εἷς; Paradigm D3.19, ὀδοντ- plus -ς becomes "ὀδοντς" and then under Rule Two "ὀδονς" and when the stem letter nu is lost, "ὀδος", and finally under Rule Four ὀδούς.) NOTE: it is unusual for the added -ς to dislodge the -ν like this in a noun; but it is common in adjectives, participles and pronouns, allowing the masculine gender to be differentiated from the neuter (e.g., εἷς and ἕν; πᾶς and πᾶν). 
(d) When the dative plural ending -σι(ν) is added to a nu stem, this morph wins out every time, and the nu is lost. (Example: Paradigm D3.16, ἡγεμον- plus -σι(ν) becomes ἡγεμόσι(ν) under this rule.) NOTE that in this word the preceding vowel -ο- does not lengthen by compensation under Rule Four because only one stem letter has been lost; but when two stem letters are lost from a dative plural form then there will be compensatory lengthening. (Example: Paradigm D3.18, ἀρχοντ- plus -σι(ν) first of all becomes "ἀρχοντσι(ν)" and then by Rule Two "ἀρχονσι(ν)", then by this Rule "ἀρχοσι(ν)", and finally by Rule Four, ἄρχουσι(ν). (NOTE the resemblance of this dative plural, with its movable nu, to the third person plural verb ending — beware of confusing these two forms.) This paradigm is the pattern followed by participles in -ων (set out in #D5.11). 
5.38 RULE SIX: THE SHORT VOWEL LENGTHENING RULE: If in the final syllable of the nominative singular of a noun form -e- or -o- is followed by a single consonant, and the form is not neuter, then that vowel lengthens to and -co- respectively. (Examples: Paradigm D3.12, acTep- plus -c —> first of all "aarepg" and then by Rule Three the sigma slides off, leaving "aarep"; which then by this Rule becomes aoTrip; Paradigm D3.13, daeicwp- plus -c --> first of all "caeicropc" and then by Rule Three the sigma slides off, leaving -daeKrop"; which then by this Rule becomes aelacop.) NOTE: this rule also applies when the vowel -E- is followed by a double consonant (thus, etAtivrig, genitive singular d).ctizeicog); it does not apply when the vowel -o- is followed by a double consonant (for example, 0.cg, o-K).otif) or when the form is neuter (for example, Paradigm D6.7, 
5.39 CLASS EXERCISE: APPLYING THESE RULES: (a) The genitive singular of the word for "night" is vincroc (feminine); applying these Rules, write out what the entire flexion of this word will be. (b) The masculine/neuter genitive singular of the aorist participle from tierbut is Oevroc.; write out what the entire masculine and neuter flexions for this word will be. (For checking your work, see #A5.2 and #D5.32.) 
5.4 IRREGULAR THIRD DECLENSION MASCULINE AND FEMININE NOUNS 
5.41 Quite a large number of Third Declension masculine and feminine nouns are slightly irregular — they form their nominative singular (and at times, their dative plural) in a way that varies to a small extent (usually by only a single letter) from what would have been expected under the rules of linguistic modification given above. The "irregular" form is still so close to expectation that usually you would have no more than a slight hesitation in recognizing the word. The more common of these have been set out in the Vocabulary for this Lesson; you can see the irregularity by comparing the other forms with the genitive singular, which shows the stem. 

68 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
5.42 Five other irregulars form what can be called "the family group": "father", -mother-. "daughter", "husband", and "wife" — all of them words that are so common that they are set out in full here (Paradigms D3.26 and D3.32) for ease of identification. (Only three paradigms are needed, as "mother", ,UTirrip, and "daughter", Ovythrip, exactly follow "father", gairjp.) 
5.43 zaz-rjp, 7rarpoc follows thyrrip, ao-Tepoc (D3.12, #5.30), but is irregular in dropping the "-E-" of its stem in the genitive and dative singular and in having an unexpected dative plural. "Husband, man", avrip, av8p6c, replaces the "-8-" of its stem with an "-E-" for nominative and vocative singular, and conforms then to the pattern of Karrjp in these forms and in the dative plural. "Wife, woman", yvvrj, yvvancog is irregular in its nominative singular, but in all other forms it conforms to the regular pattern of cap , capicoc (D3.6, #5.31). 

<table>
 <tr><td>5.44</td><th>D3.18 ruler</th><th>D3.32 father</th><th>D3.32 husband/man</th><th>D3.26 wife/woman</th><th>D3.9 body</th></tr>
 <tr><td></td><td>ὁ ἄρχων</td><td>ὁ πατήρ</td><td>ὁ ἀνήρ</td><td>ἡ γυνή</td><td>τὸ σῶμα</td></tr>
 <tr><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
 <tr><th style="text-align: right">SN</th><td>ἄρχων</td><td>πατήρ</td><td>ἀνήρ</td><td>γυνή</td><td>σῶμα</td></tr>
 <tr><th style="text-align: right">V</th><td>   —</td><td>πάτερ</td><td>ἄνερ</td><td>γύναι</td><td>   —</td></tr>
 <tr><th style="text-align: right">A</th><td>ἄρχοντα</td><td>πατέρα</td><td>ἄνδρα</td><td>γυναῖκα</td><td>σῶμα</td></tr>
 <tr><th style="text-align: right">G</th><td>ἄρχοντος</td><td>πατρός</td><td>ἀνδρός</td><td>γυναικός</td><td>σώματος</td></tr>
 <tr><th style="text-align: right">D</th><td>ἄρχοντι</td><td>πατρί</td><td>ἀνδρί</td><td>γυναικί</td><td>σώματι</td></tr>
 <tr><th style="text-align: right">PN</th><td>ἄρχοντες</td><td>πατέρες</td><td>ἄνδρες</td><td>γυναῖκες</td><td>σώματα</td></tr>
 <tr><th style="text-align: right">A</th><td>ἄρχοντας</td><td>πατέρας</td><td>ἄνδρας</td><td>γυναῖκας</td><td>σώματα</td></tr>
 <tr><th style="text-align: right">G</th><td>ἀρχόντων</td><td>πατέρων</td><td>ἀνδρῶν</td><td>γυναικῶν</td><td>σωμάτων</td></tr>
 <tr><th style="text-align: right">D</th><td>ἄρχουσι(ν)</td><td>πατράσι(ν)</td><td>ἀνδράσι(ν)</td><td>γυναιξί(ν)</td><td>σώμασι(ν)</td></tr>
 <tr></tr>
</table>

5.45 Where Knowing Greek Makes a Difference: It is important to know the difference between avrip, which means "man" in the sense of "mature male", "husband", and avepovrog (introduced in #1.41), which is "man" as a person, a human being. In the New Testament dvepovrog is used in reference to people in general, both men and women (in Matthew, for example, Matthew 4:4; 5:16; 5:19; 6:1; 6:5; 6:14-16; 7:12; 8:27; 12:12; 12:35; 12:43-45; 13:24-25; 16:26; 18:7; 23:4; and similarly in Paul's writings: for example, Romans 1:18; 1:23; 3:4; 3:28; 5:12; 5:18; 9:20; 14:18-20; 1 Corinthians 2:14; 3:3-4; 4:9; 11:28; 15:39; 2 Corinthians 5:11; 8:21; Galatians 1:10; 2:16; 6:7; Ephesians 4:8; 1 Thessalonians 2:6; 2:15; 1 Timothy 2:4-5; 4:10; 6:9; 2 Timothy 3:13; Titus 2:11; 3:2). In the NRSV avOixorog is usually translated as "mankind", "person", "human being", "people", "others" or the like. devrip is used in specific reference to a male human being, particularly in relation to that person's male roles; it is frequently used in contradistinction from yvvrj, "wife, woman" (for example, by Paul in Romans 7:1-3; 1 Corinthians 7:1-16; 11:1-16; 14:35; Ephesians 5:22-33; Colossians 3:18-19; 1 Timothy 2:8-12; 3:2; 5:9; Titus 1:6). Now then: in 2 Timothy 2:2 Paul writes, "The things you have heard me say in the presence of many witnesses entrust to reliable men who will also be qualified to teach others." (NIV.) Which word does Paul use here for "men", who are also to be qualified to teach others? The word which means "males, husbands"? Or the word which means "human beings, persons of both sexes", who shall in turn teach others (of both sexes)? If you know Greek, you will recognize the word Paul chooses to use in 2 Timothy 2:2, and its significance for us in our understanding of Paul's overall teaching: Paul uses avepovroc, not avrip. 
5.5 THIRD DECLENSION NEUTER CONSONANT STEMS 
5.51 The Third Declension neuter nouns with consonant stems all conform exactly to the dental stem pattern of παῖς, παιδός (see Paradigm D3.8, #5.31), but they have the three characteristics of the neuter: 

FIVE: THE THIRD DECLENSION 69 
5.52 Firstly, the neuter nominative singular does not add the -c that one finds in the masculine and feminine forms. Thus from the genitive singular acAuaroc one derives the stem o-copaz-; no -c is added for the nominative singular, but cannot stand as final letter of a word, and therefore is dropped (see the Word Endings Rule, #1.74). So the nominative singular is odua. 
5.53 Secondly, the nominative plural is formed by adding "-a" to the stem, aajpa-c-, giving ailyi ara. 
5.54 Thirdly, the accusative (both singular and plural) is always identical with the nominative. 
5.55 Of the 140 words that follow this paradigm, a dozen or so occur very frequently in the New Testament. In addition, there are three common words which do not have their stem in the "-par-" that is characteristic of this paradigm, and which have irregular nominative singular forms, but which in all other ways follow adiya. These words are: ydvv, yovatoc, "knee" (#D3.29); ot'); (frróc, "ear" (#D3.30); and I58cop, 158a-roc, water (#D3.13). Also neuter is Kip, irvp6; "fire", which follows aornjp (Paradigm D3.11, #5.30) but with the neuter characteristic that the accusative form is identical with the nominative (paradigm set out in full in Appendix, #D3.11). 
5.6 LEARNING THE THIRD DECLENSION ??? 
5.61 It is not really necessary to learn all the Third Declension paradigms — they are not given here for that purpose. There are two which you do need to learn: ἰχθύς (Paradigm D3.1, #5.20), which will give you the endings, and then σάρξ (Paradigm D3.6, #5.30) for the consonant stem paradigms. Look carefully through the remainder of the paradigms set out in this Lesson to see how stems and endings are modified when the different types of each are added together. Aim to be sufficiently familiar with the Linguistic Modification Rules and the overall pattern so that you can expect to have a good likelihood of recognizing the number and case of a Third Declension word when you encounter one. Remember, when you need to, you can always refer back to these paradigms, here and in Appendix D, #D3.
5.62 If you have the time and the desire, other paradigms which it would be helpful for you to learn in addition would be βασιλεύς, γένος, and σῶμα. 
5.7 LDECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES: FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSION PATTERN 
5.71 TWO PATTERNS OF DECLENSION: Adjectives follow two basic patterns of leclension, with two subgroups in each. There are adjectives which follow the First and Second Declension Pattern, and there are others which follow the First and Third Declension Pattern. 
5.72 THE TWO SUB-GROUPS: Adjectives which follow the First and Second Declension pattern will normally have three flexions, for the three genders, and they are therefore referred to ls -three-termination adjectives of the First and Second Declensions". However, there are some which belong to this group but which do not have a separate feminine flexion; these are known as "two-termination adjectives of the Second Declension". 
5.73 THREE-TERMINATION ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLEN-IONS (#D4.1, #D4.2): In this pattern, the feminine form of the adjective will follow the First Declension paradigms (D1.1 and D1.2, #3.11). The masculine and neuter forms of the adjective declined exactly the same as the nouns, masculine and neuter respectively, of the Second ,..-•clension (D2.1 and D2.2, #2.40). Thus, indicating the declensions of the masculine, feminine 

70 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
and neuter flexions respectively, these can be referred to as 2-1-2 adjectives. These adjectives are cited in a lexicon in the masculine form followed by the feminine and neuter endings (#2.5 ). Paradigms for these are set out in Appendix D, #D4.1 and #D4.2. 
5.74 TWO-TERMINATION ADJECTIVES OF THE SECOND DECLENSION: Some adjectives have only the Second Declension terminations and do not use a distinctive feminine form - the masculine form does duty as the feminine also. In this circumstance the masculine flexion is known as personal gender, as it functions for both masculine and feminine. (These are thus 2-2 adjectives.) Words of this kind are for the most part adjectives that are compound. including those beginning with -a-, meaning "not" or "un-", such as d(Sticoc, -ov, -unjust". 666vaToc, -ov, "incapable, impossible". Some adjectives vary between being used as two-termination and three-termination adjectives, and in these cases there are frequently variant readings in the manuscripts of the Greek, as ancient editors "corrected" the text in one direction or the other. 
5.8 DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES: FIRST AND THIRD DECLENSION PATTERN 
5.81 THE TWO SUB-GROUPS: Adjectives which follow the First and Third Declension pattern will normally have three flexions, for the three genders, and they are therefore referred to as "three-termination adjectives of the First and Third Declensions" (these are 3-1-3 adjectives). However, there are some which belong to this group but which do not have a separate feminine flexion; these are known as "two-termination adjectives of the Third Declension" (these are 3-3 adjectives). 
5.82 THREE TERMINATION ADJECTIVES: FEMININES ARE FIRST DECLENSION: In the pattern for three-termination adjectives of the First and Third Declensions, the stem of the feminine form of the adjective will usually end in p, 1, or e, and therefore will take "-a-" and follow the First Declension paradigm of icapSia (D1.1, #3.11). For example, f3apeia, from Paptjc, "hard/heavy" (Paradigm D4.4). Alternatively, the stem of some adjectives ends in the phoneme sigma; such an adjective will decline like 6.ga (D1.3, #3.11). Example: Irefeca, from nag, "all" (Paradigm D4.6). Those few adjectives which end in -77 follow Ocovrj (D1.2, #3.11). 
5.83 MASCULINES AND NEUTERS ARE THIRD DECLENSION: The masculine forms of Papa; #D4.4 (followed by 16 adjectives) are declined like nijAlc (D3.2, #5.20), but with -v-instead of -t- in nominative (vocative) and accusative singular; the neuter forms have the regular neuter characteristics: identical with the masculine in genitive and dative, both singular and plural; nominative/accusative singular consists of the masculine word stem alone (Papij); nominative/ accusative plural forms take the ending -a- (f3apa). The masculine of Irac (genitive gav-rdc) follows the Linguistic Modification Rules exactly and is identical with Paradigm D3.20 (#5.37), while the neuter retains the -v- of the stem in the nominative/accusative singular and adds the neuter -a- to the stem in the plural (the paradigm of ira; is given in full, #D4.6). All participles in "-ac" (such as )ocTac, #4.21) follow ran,-. 
5.84 THE - ON PARTICIPLE PATTERN: The adjective "willing", etcajv, eicovrog (#D4.5) follows Paradigm D3.18 (#5.44), dpxwv, apzovtoc, with neuter nominative/accusative singular kicov, and plural etcovwc. All participles in "-wv" (such as 2.4jwv, #4.21) decline like kiativ (see #D5.1). 
5.85 COMMON IRREGULARS, MIXED SECOND AND THIRD DECLENSION: Two very common adjectives are irregular and follow a mixed paradigm of Second and Third Declension forms. These are the flexions for the singular, with Third Declension forms underlined: 

FIVE: THE THIRD DECLENSION 71 
roAtig, much, many, large itiyag, great m. f. II. m. f. n. SN 7ro)5,-,- troAArj 7roAt5 ileYag peya2.77 yeya A Irokt3v 7roA),Tiv 7ro2co peyav iwycariv yew G roUofi 7ro;tAfic iroao pEydaov pEy(uric peydAov D KoAAO rcoU 7ro2Jki juEydAcp ,uEydau peya2,cp The masculine and neuter plural is Second Declension throughout. NOTE THAT the nominative and accusative forms, masculine and neuter (but not feminine) are Third Declension, while the genitive and dative forms, and all plural forms of these words, are regular Second Declension, with stems Iro- and ,uEyoa- respectively. That is, in these flexions from the genitive singular onwards, their stems add a lambda, and all forms with these lengthened stems are Second Declension. These flexions are set out in full in #D4.42, #D4.43. 5.86 THE WORD FOR "ONE": The word for "one" has these forms: SN Erg- pia iv A va ,uiav NOTE: In the nature of the case, there is no plural. G evog- ineic evdc The feminine uses a completely different stem: D evi plc( evi The forms of Erg combine with of)(5e and ,ur76e to give o1)(5eig-, o1')6Epia, o1)6ev and ,uri8Eic, prikuia, ,u176ev, "no-one, nothing". The forms eic and V are distinguished from the prepositions eig ("into", #A4.3) and ev ("in", #2.65) by the accent and the rough breathing on each. 
5.87 TWO-TERMINATION ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION (#D4.7, D4.8): Some adjectives have only the Third Declension terminations and no distinctive feminine form – the masculine form does duty as the feminine also; that is to say, the masculine form is personal gender. (These are thus 3-3 adjectives.) There are two main paradigms for these, shown by di0pcov (which follows Paradigm D3.16 [#5.30], reiyE,uil)v, r)yeydvo;) and allelic (which follows Paradigm D3.5, [#5.20], yevog-, yevovg). All positive adjectives in "-WV" (except kialw and Coccov: for which, see #5.84) and all comparative adjectives in "-coy" follow dOpcov.
5.88 The pronoun 21g, 2/ (genitive Ttvoc) also has only two terminations and apart from the nominative singular follows fiye,ucav, rjyE,uovoc, Paradigm D3.16 (#5.30). NOTE that when accented on the iota (Tic, 2i, etc.), this is the interrogative pronoun "who?, what?", and when unaccented or accented on its second syllable it is the indefinite pronoun, "someone, a certain, something". (It is given in full in the Appendix, #D6.5, #D6.6.) (This is the eighth accent which needs to be noted: see #A4.23 and #5.86.) 
5.89 Because of the extent to which these various adjectives, pronouns and participles have the same endings and follow the same general patterns as the nouns of the First, Second, and Third Declensions, their case, number and gender will usually be easily recognizable, and so it is not necessary to give paradigms for them all here. Any unusual or difficult forms will always be explained in the textual notes on the passage of the Greek New Testament that you are reading. All the paradigms, however, for adjectives, pronouns and participles are given in Appendix D. 
5.9 NOTES RE THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT SELECTIONS 
5.91 INSTRUMENTAL DATIVE: The dative case can be used to indicate the means with which something was done or the instrument that was used. This is called the instrumental dative. It is usu-ally best translated into English as "by means of ..." or "with ...". Thus in L5/B4, i36a-rt means "with water" – what is under consideration is what was used, not where it took place. Similarly in L5/B6 iDONlj yEycat3 means "with a loud voice", referring to "the instrument used" or "the means used". 

72 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
5.92 Sometimes Lv (plus dative) is used with this same "instrumental" sense, the instrumental ev. Thus ev Irve15,uaTt ayicp (L5/B4) means "with the Holy Spirit" in this context, not "in the Holy Spirit". That is, the meaning of ev here is not positional, where the baptism takes place, but instrumental, what the baptism is with. Similarly kv nveopart doca0aprcp (L5/B6) means "with an unclean spirit). 
5.93 Whether a particular use of the dative or the dative-plus-ev is instrumental or has some other meaning must be decided from the context in each particular case. 
5.94 RECOGNIZING AORIST FORMS: Note the difference between Ocvcrav and .1')cray. Both forms contain the punctiliar morph -o-a- and are therefore first aorist tense. The k- in Avaav is the past time morph and this factor in itself indicates indicative mode (because the aorist only takes the past time morph in the indicative — #4.42). The form is thus to be recognized as 3rd person plural aorist indicative. However, .2.15(3-ay is an aorist participle: the neuter nominative singular of ,a'ocag and means "loosing" or "having loosed", or "after loosing", with reference to a word that is neuter. This should be kept in mind in tackling L5/B6. 
ASSIGNMENTS ON LESSON FIVE 
1. PARADIGMS FOR LEARNING: The paradigms to be learnt by heart this Lesson are: 10. ixatjg (Paradigm D3.1, #5.20) 11. oyip (Paradigm D3.6, #5.30) 
2. LEARNING THE OTHER MAJOR PARADIGMS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION: Aim to understand the Linguistic Modification Rules which produce the different paradigms of the Third Declension (#5.3), and to recognize the forms of the paradigms which result from these rules. That is, seek to learn these other paradigms by understanding rather than by rote. 
3. APPENDIX: READ CAREFULLY the additional information set out in Appendix #A5. 
4. WORKBOOK: ANSWER THE QUESTIONS in your Workbook about this Lesson. 
5. TRANSLATION EXERCISES A AND B: Do the English into Greek exercises, and then read and translate literally all the Selections from the Greek New Testament. Make sure that you continue the pattern of reading each Selection aloud before translating it, to help cultivate your "feel" for the Greek. NOTE: To do this work you will need to use the paradigms set for learning this Lesson, together with the paradigms and vocabulary of the previous Lessons. The new prepositions given below, and the cases they take, should be carefully noted. Most of the Selections introduce new vocabulary which is then used again in the Selections which follow. LEARN each unknown word as you use it.
6. VOCABULARY CARDS: Continue the practice of writing out Vocabulary Cards for the new words introduced in this Lesson, putting 5 (for "Lesson 5") in the top lefthand corner of each side of the Card. Make out the card for each new word as you come to it in the Sentences below; some of the words will be needed for several Sentences. When you are given a word form and what it comes from, put the word it comes from at the top of your Card, and the information about that word form lower on the Card. Add these Cards to your collection, and place them all in alphabetical order. When additional information is provided about a word which you have had in a previous Lesson, add that information to your existing Vocabulary Card for that word. (Don't forget to put on your Card the case(s) taken by each preposition.) 
7. ABBREVIATIONS IN THE NOTES (BELOW): see page 12. 

FIVE: THE THIRD DECLENSION 73 
PREPOSITIONS
*kgi, kg, kcif (+acc) for, to, concerning, across VE10EV (+gen) because of (+gen) over, upon *157-rep (+acc) beyond, more than (+dat) at, by, on, in (+gen) for, concerning, for the sake of
A. TRANSLATION FROM ENGLISH INTO GREEK (This may be done as an exercise in class at the end of the Lesson, or set as an assignment.) NOTE: A word in square brackets, like [am], is omitted in the Greek.
SENTENCES NOTES AND NEW WORDS
A1. This is truly the saviour of the world. saviour: acorrjp, -fipog, 6 (JOHN 4:42)
A2. "Say to the daughter of Zion, 'Behold, your daughter: Ovycirrip, Ovyarpoc, r); king comes to you.— (MATTHEW 21:5) Zion: Itd)v (indecl.; 6 or to)
A3. Grace and peace from God [the] father grace: *xdpic, xdptroc, and Christ Jesus our Saviour. (TITUS 1:4)
A4. and we (emphatic) have [the] mind of and: *6e; Christ. (1 CORINTHIANS 2:16) mind: vac, voog, 6 (D3.3, #5.20)
A5. Believe me that I (emphatic) [am] in the "believe" takes the dative father and the father in me. (JOHN 14:11)
A6. And the governor questioned him, saying, governor, leader: r,yeycov, -ovoc, 6 "Are you (emphatic) the king of the Jews?" question, ask: *egepcoraco (MATTHEW 27:11)
A7. They were saying, "He has an unclean spirit." unclean: docaeaproc, -ov (MARK 3:30)
A8. My spirit rejoiced in God my saviour. (LUKE 1:47)
A9. "Where is the one born king of the Jews? For we saw his star in the east, and we came to worship him." (MATTHEW 2:2)
rejoiced: r)yaalacev; in: *bri (plus the dative) where? Koi); the one born: 6 rexOeig; east: avararj, r); worship: *gpoo-Kvvew (takes the dative) 
B. SELECTIONS FROM THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT A superscript number (as in aor2) is used to indicate a Second or Third Conjugation verb (as the case may be).
B1. Aim yap 'Opiv or' goAildt gpoofirai Kai (3aat2,efg r)190Lticav i3eiv ir)yeig PAe7rETE Kai ot5K elioav, aKof)aat a doco-Oere Kai of)K ifKovaay. (KATA AOTKAN 10:24)
B2. Kai eicifiABev gcatv eic IT v avvaywriv. rIv kKei dv9pcogoc kripappivriv 2(cov zeipa. (KATA MAPKON 3:1)
B3. Kai &rev, Ad:fiere, rof)ro eartv To ozoita you eligev afxrofc, Tof)ro k621T To 041,10C p01) TES 6taerivic. (KATA MAPKON 14:22, 24)
*goktjc, goA,A1-j, roAli: many, much, large
eripapauevriv: shrivelled, withered
Aa/3ETE: take (aorist2 imperative); *o-c5pa, -aro; ro: body; *arita, -aro; ro. blood; thaeriKri, covenant 

74 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 

B4. eyth OducTica Audc i6ctri, afrrag (Se ParTio-Et i51uaç ev 1TVE741aTt ayfrp. (KATA 1VIAPKON1:8)
B5. El Tic Xet dna a1C01/)E1V dKoverw. Kai OLEyEv af)Tofg, BAerETE Ti aKoijETE. (KA TA MAPKON4:23-24)
B6. 6t6acKcov ai5Toi),; o5c kouciav ixo)v icaI of)x thc oi ypappaTE1c. Kai Ef91; iv ev r avvaywyrj af)Tciiv div9pcoroc ev 7VvEt5A.taTt a/meow-tip, caI deveKpaev Kai erETipricEv af)T45 6 Thcof)g. ileycov, OtpcoeriTt Kai EASE af)Tof). Kai crapo4av af)Tbv To rvEf)pa To aketelaprov Kai Ocovficav ocovrj pEria73 ef1A61Ev af)Tof). (KATA MAPKON1.22-26)
B7. AeyEt ceoTO) ó 7r7o-ac, 'Eyoi eijii 11 686c darjOEta iccà i conj. of)(5Eic pzeTat vac- Tay 7ra-cepa Ei pi) 61' kitofi. (KA TA IS2ANNHN 14:6)
B8. ErrcEv 5e, "Avepwrdc Tic EIXEV 81/K) 11101c. icatEr7TEV 0 vEoirEpoc of)To5v iraTpi, HarEp, 86c pot Tà ertPc/caov ,uepoc Tiç of)•iac. (KATA AOTKAN15:11-12)
B9. Kat rIcav eK To5v Oaptcaiwv. Or av af)TO, Ti oZv f3arTicEtc- Ei al) o& Er XptcTac of)6e '11.1,1ag. oi56e 6 7rpoOrirric arEviOri af)Toic ó 'Icoavvric 2,eycov, 'Eyd) Par/rico) (KA TA IS2ANNHN 1:24-26)
B10. dolAa 411Eic Of) ITHSTE'6ETE, oT1 01)1C ecTe kiC To5v rpoi3aTcov TCOv k#á5v. th rpoPaTa rà epee Tilc ocoviic you dtKoijouctv, Kayth ylvoicKco of)Ta, icth aKoAdoveof)civ pot, Kayth 618copt at)Tofc cor)v aiojvtov, icaI of) yr) derdAcovrou Eic Tay aia3va, oi4 aprckaa Ttc aura eK Ttic zEtpoc pov. 6 car* pov oc oe6coKev pot pEicCOV 7rarmov kariv, K of)(5Eic 81/maTat apracEtv kK Tfic xEtpac Tor) raTpoc. eyth Kai 6 rceriip ev kayEv. (KATA IQANNHN 10:26-30, margin)
B11. eyveTo i5fula Oeof) br 7cocivvriv Tay Zaxapiov vial/ ev n lorrhucio. Kai rriA9Ev racav rriv rEpixwpov Tot-) 7op8avou Kriptjaccov PourTtqua pETavoiac el; &peaty apapTto5v. (KATA AOYKAN3:2-3)
B12. pakpoevpricaTE icth -15pEic, ciripiaTE rckç Kap(51a;ie),ucov, r) rapovaia Toi) Kvpiov rjyytKEV. (.1AKS2BOY 5:8)
*i3a7rricw: baptize; *158cop, i56aToc, To: water; *oiyzo;, -a, -ov: holy 013; thTdc,, To: ear
avaxpacw: cry out (aorist, dtvekpo/ta),
(141.169r7Tt: Be quiet!; crap4av: throwing into convulsions (neuter aorist participle)
*ot58Eic, ot')8Epia, of)6ev: no-one; p%Erat: (he) comes; Ei 'IA: except, unless; (51'. eta (elision)
vecoTEpoc, -a, ov: younger; doc: give (aor impv); briPoCAA,ov. falling by inheritance; pepoc, -ov; 7-6: part; oi)o-ia, r): property
'HAiac, -cm 6: Elijah; aireviOri: (he) answered
*EK: belonging to, #2.65(b), #A4.38; Here there is an exception to 2.17(a): what is it? *ylvokyKco: know; *aioivioc, -ov: eternal; aro/low-rat: (they) would perish (aor3 subj); Eic rev aiciiva: to eternity, ever; ainracco: snatch; 6e6coKev: (he) has given; pEiccov, pEfc ov: greater; *,lrãç, rocca, rav (ravroc): every, all
Ζαχαρίας, -ου, ὁ: Zachariah; gepizcopoc, --ov, 7): surrounding region; Ἰορδάνης, -ου, ὁ: Jordan (River); μετάνοια, -ας, ἡ: repentance; ἄφεσις, -εως, ἡ: forgiveness; *ἁμαρτία, -ίας, ἡ: sin
paKpoeupew: wait patiently; παρουσία, -ας, ἡ: coming, arrival; ἤγγικα: perfect from ἐγγίζω, I draw near

•poou no1c lap spJom Fuopmpr /Cur Joj X.Truollom moic osa
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.LAM/WISH," MaN Na1110 mu NI SaDVSSVd AHVINIMAIHrlddaS
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2wiluo .// 45(o3-
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NONdVIN VIVN)
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</div>

<div id="L6" class="Lesson">
LESSON SIX 
THE MIDDLE AND PASSIVE VOICE 
6.1 THE PASSIVE AND MIDDLE VOICES OF THE VERB 
6.11 So far we have covered only the active voice of the verb — where the subject of the verb is the doer of the action of the verb, that is, where the action of the verb moves outwards from the subject. It could be described diagrammatically as: 
VERB
SUBJECT
There are two other voices in Greek: the passive, and the middle. 
6.12 The passive voice has the same meaning and operates in the same way as in English: the subject of the sentence is the person or thing upon whom the action of the verb is carried out. (Examples: "Blessed are those who mourn, for they shall be comforted." "The word was spoken by the prophet in days of old.") It could be described diagrammatically as: 
SUBJECT
VERB
6.13 The middle voice is (as its name suggests) between the active and the passive in its function. No simple explanation is possible of what the middle voice is: in fact, its function and meaning can vary from verb to verb. The middle voice can be found used in four ways: 
1. Commonly, the middle voice is used for intransitive verbs, that is. where the action of the verb does not carry over to an object but solely affects the subject. (Examples: "The water boiled." "He paused." "The child laughed.") Often the subject of a middle voice verb is acting for himself or in his own interests. 
2. Closely related to the first use, the middle voice can have a reflexive sense — the action was done to or for the subject. (Examples: "He exercised for thirty minutes, then bathed and dressed.") 
6.14 These two basic usages shade into each other. Something of the force of the middle can be seen in these Greek New Testament examples, which you should consider: 
Acts 8:32 Acts 18:18 John 13:14 Matthew 27:24 Matthew 27:31 Mark 6:9 Acts 21:24 Acts 21:25 
A lamb is dumb before the one who is shearing it (Keipco, in the active), but Paul had his head shorn (also Keipco, but this time in the middle). Jesus washed the disciples' feet (active of vigtco), but Pilate washed his hands (middle voice of vinTco). They put on him his own clothes (active of kv815co), but Do not put on two tunics (middle of ev86(o). You yourself keep the law (active of OuAticacno), but They are to keep themselves from idol food (middle of Ov)lio-act)). 
However, the middle voice was falling out of use in koine Greek, and it is not always found where it might be expected. Thus Matthew and Luke use the active voice of 01Aciao-co in a passage where it is appropriate for the middle to be used, whereas in this passage Mark does use the middle: 
Matthew 19:20 Mark 10:20 Luke 18:21 
All these I have kept (e015A.4a — active of Ov)ticacco) All these I have kept (e0tgadeliriv — middle of Ov)accrw) All these I have kept (kOlAaa — active of OvAticaco)
76 

SIX: THE MIDDLE AND PASSIVE VOICE 77 
6.15 The reflexive use of the middle is seen in: Matthew 27:5 Judas went away and hanged himself (middle). But it is more common to find a reflexive expressed by an active voice and the reflexive pronoun, as in: John 17:19 
I sanctify myself (active voice + reflexive pronoun). 
6.16 Most commonly the middle voice will be rendered in English by the active voice, occasion-ally with the added pronoun (himself, for himself, etc.), and at times with a construction that indicates that the subject had the action carried out upon himself. The middle voice could be described diagrammatically as: 
VERB SUBJECT
6.17 The other two uses of the middle voice in Greek are: 3. Some verbs have developed a distinctive meaning in the middle voice which is only rather distantly related to their active meaning. NOTE these seven verbs particularly, to avoid confusion and misunderstanding. They are: 
Active Middle 
aipew daro618w,ut eirCTW dePP) Kon-caakti@avw icom-w geiew
I take away I repay I light I rule/govern I obtain I cut I persuade
aipeopat ago8i8opat di7r201.iat dpxopat KaTa2,a,uPavoyat icon-witat gEieopat
I choose I sell I touch I begin I realize/learn I mourn/lament I obey
4. A number of verbs have only a middle form, without any corresponding active voice. These verbs have an active meaning and (in accordance with the connotations of the middle voice) they are intransitive or where they do require or can have an object it will be in a case other than the accusative. These verbs are known as deponent middle verbs. There are also a small number of deponent passive verbs, that is, verbs which use the passive voice forms rather than the middle, but with active meaning. A small number of deponents, of which c'urokpivoyat, "answer", is the most common, can use both middle and passive forms. 6.18 A comprehensive list of 59 verbs which are (always, or frequently) deponent in the Greek New Testament is given in #C7.5. Of these, there are twenty-four which occur more than 20 times each, and which therefore are particularly to be noted. These are: 
agokpivogat Cur rop apveopat dipxo,uat acurdecouat f3a0i,o,uat yivopat &opal.
answer touch deny begin greet want become beseech
6exo,uat 6t5vailat kpyacopat przoliat evayyeA,icopat r)yeoyat OEdeopat ideojuat
receive be able work come preach think/lead look at heal
taierbuat icavxdoyat ICEIllat Aoyicopat 7ropeoopat n-po6Et4opat OoPeopat xapicoktat
sit down boast lie down account/reckon go/proceed pray fear grant/forgive 
6.19 Verbs that are deponent in the present are (almost without exception) deponent in the other tenses also (the only exceptions to note are that yivoyat is yeyova in the perfect, and the suppletive 4)zoyat has active aorist and perfect forms from e),19- [ PLOov, OLTP.,v0a]). In addition, there are fourteen verbs (set out in #C7.6) which are deponent in their future tense in the New Testament and have active forms in their other tenses. These are all quite common and important 

78 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
verbs, and should be noted carefully. It is important to be able to recognize a deponent form, so that it can be correctly interpreted. 
6.2 THE PARADIGM OF THE MIDDLE VOICE 
6.21 The middle voice has its own set of pronoun endings, which are added to the same stem as for the active. The six Greek tenses fall into two groups, which are known as the primary and sec-ondary tenses. The primary and secondary tenses have slightly different pronoun endings. They are: Characteristic Primary Tenses (Present, Secondary Tenses (Imperfect, Letter Future, Present Perfect) Aorist, Pluperfect) 
SINGULAR 1 2 3 PLURAL 1
2
3
p o-T p a r
-pat -cat -rat -ge0a -o-Oe - vrat
- 11111 V - CTO - TO -p,e0a -aee -v TO
6.22 NOTE that the secondary tenses are the ones that take the augment (in the indicative mode, indicating past time), whereas the primary tenses do not. The secondary tenses are also known as the historic tenses. NOTE the characteristic letters found for 1st, 2nd and 3rd person (p, a, r) which also surface in other places — the -p- and -o-- in the personal pronouns kith, pe, 01j, etc., and in eitidc, ad; kilaurdv, aeaurdv; and the -1-- in a'ord; aroc, and the article. 
6.23 The same procedures are used as in the active voice for adding the endings to the lexal: the present tense adds the neutral morph -e- or -o- to the lexal and then takes the primary endings; the future is the same as the present with the -a- future morph inserted between the lexal and the endings; the imperfect has the augment, adds the neutral morph -e- or -o- to the lexal and then takes the secondary endings; the first aorist has the augment, adds the punctiliar morph -aoc- (-a-before vowels) to the lexal and then takes the secondary endings. The one difference is that the present perfect does not have the perfective morph -Ica- (as in the active) but adds the ending straight on to the reduplicated lexal. The pluperfect is rare, and so is not set out here (it is given in #C1.1); like the present perfect middle, it adds its endings (the secondary endings) straight on to the lexal, and takes the augment — thus giving the form ble)d)dunv. However, in use the pluperfect frequently omits the augment. Some verbs form their pluperfect middle and possibly some forms of their perfect middle as well by the use of the perfect middle participle and the imperfect tense of eigt, or the present tense respectively. These are known as periphrastic tenses, and will be covered more fully at a later time (#10.6). 
6.24 There is one complication: the -a- of the second person singular is squeezed out and disap-pears in the present, future, imperfect, and aorist tenses, and the neutral morph -E- (or the -a- in the aorist) then contracts with the vowel that follows the lost -a- into a diphthong or long vowel. 
6.25 The indicative and subjunctive middle paradigm flexions for AtSco are: 
INDICATIVE: Primary Tenses Secondary Tenses SUBJUNCTIVE
51 2 3 P1 2 3
Present Aixwat AA')7312,15et kberat Avoyeea A-Oeo-Oe Atjovrat
Future Perfect Imperfect Aikyoduat AeAvyat eAvopriv 2.1jo-r3 AeAvaat eAtjov ktjaerat AE) vrat eiatjew Avo-opeOa Aatjpe0a eAvoye9a AtjaecOe AeAvaVE atjecee Aijo-ovrat AeAvvrat atjovro
1st Aorist Present Aorist 01. vozip r7 v Aticopat Alkico,uat blijaco ktjarii kAijaaw Aijrirat Atjo-rirat aucakte6a Avd)peOa A,voi3Oyeea kAtjaaaVe Atjno-t9e koaricele 0,10-avro Atjcovrat A1')acovrat 

SIX: THE MIDDLE AND PASSIVE VOICE 79 
6.26 As in the active voice, there are two tenses of the subjunctive in common use, the present and the aorist. The present subjunctive middle is the same as the present indicative middle but with the neutral morph -e- or -o- lengthened to -77- and -co- respectively (and iota being subscript on -77-). Thus the subjunctive morph (as in the active voice) is not something that is added to the word, but a process morph'8. Again, as in the active, the aorist subjunctive middle is identical with the present subjunctive middle but with the aorist morph -a- inserted between the lexal and the endings. This means that in the subjunctive the aorist follows the primary pattern of endings (and has no augment, and does not relate to past time) — contrast its secondary pattern in the indicative mode. 
6.27 There are two possible forms of the 2nd person singular present indicative, A1573 and ,vet. Both forms are identical with others which occur elsewhere in the paradigms — aver with the 3rd person singular present indicative active (#2.81) and Aijo with the 3rd person singular present sub-junctive active (#4.21) and also with the 2nd person singular present subjunctive middle (#6.25). Usually the context will make it clear which form is intended (just as the context in English will usually make it clear, when one sees "read", "put", etc., whether the present or past tense is meant). But occasionally (in Greek, as in English) a form is encountered which is ambiguous. 
6.28 Another pair of identical forms, to which the same comments apply, are the 2nd person singular future indicative middle and aorist subjunctive middle, both of which are Aljav (#6.25). 
6.29 The present, aorist and perfect middle for the imperative, infinitive and participle are: IMPERATIVE: Present First Aorist Perfect SINGULAR 2 koou 2.15aat Aeiavo-o 3 Aveaeco ilvado-Ow AzA,Ijoreco PLURAL 2 AfiEa9E Atjo-acee AOLvo-Oe 3 Aueaewaav Avoyia0coo-av ilatja0coaav INFINITIVE: Aljeo-Oca Atjaaceat AeAtjaeat PARTICIPLE: Avopevoc, -ri, -ov AvaapEvoc,, -77, -ov Aowyevo;-, -17, -ov 
6.3 POINTS TO NOTE 
6.31 The 2nd person plural present, Atjeo-Oe, is the same in form for the imperative (see above) as for the indicative (#6.25); we have already noted that this was true also for the active voice (Atjere: #3.51). Similarly, the 2nd plural imperative of the perfect, Ai.Avo-Be (see above) is also the same as the indicative (#6.25). In the aorist indicative and imperative, these same forms are distinguished only by the augment — it is prefixed to the aorist form in the indicative (eAtjaaa0e), but absent in the imperative (Aicao-Oe). The forms for other persons and numbers are distinctive. 
6.32 Another pair of identical forms needs now to be noted: the 2nd person singular aorist middle imperative, Aficat (#6.29), is the same in form as that for the aorist infinitive (see #4.21). 
6.33 Future Middle forms can occur for the infinitive and participle — as usual, they are the same as for the present, with the future morph added in in Slot 6. These forms are very rare.
6.34 The letters -o19- comprise the specifier morph (Slot 8) for the middle imperative and infinitive; but this morph is absent from the forms for all tenses of the 2nd person singular imperative. Nor does it occur in the flexions of the indicative middle (except, incidentally, in the 2nd person plural forms) — these forms have to be identified as middle by the distinctive sets of middle pronoun suffixes which they have, which bear some similarities to the equivalent suffixes for the active but are distinguishably different from them. However, when -60- does occur in Slot 8 in a word, it identifies that word form as middle.

80 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
6.35 The morph -μεν- occurs in all middle participles and only in middle participles, and thus is a specifier morph (Slot 8): it effectively identifies any word in which it occurs as being a middle participle form. It can be noted that each participle consists of: the lexal, the aspect morph (the neutral morph -o- for the present tense, -o-a- for the first aorist, and prefixed reduplication for the perfect), the specifier morph for the middle participle, and then the respective numbercase endings of the First and Second Declensions. In all tenses, the middle participle declines in the pattern of the First and Second Declensions (see the complete set of paradigm flexions in Appendix D, #D5.14—D5.16).
6.36 NOTE THAT the specifier morph occupies the eighth of the verb's nine morph slots. 

6.37 However, it is about to be explained (#6.5) that all the various middle forms for the future and aorist tenses can be "switched" to the passive voice by the insertion of the passive morph in Slot 5, and the middle forms for the present/imperfect and the perfect tenses can be either middle or passive in meaning. 
6.38 The same linguistic modification rules given earlier (#4.5) apply when adding -a- and when adding the endings of the perfect tense to a consonant verb stem. (Further details of these linguistic modifications are set out in #10.45.) In almost all cases, the verb, and the effect of the -a- or the fact that it is perfect tense (as the case may be), will be easily recognizable. Difficult and irregular cases will be explained fully in your Analysis (Zerwick and Grosvenor, or Rienecker and Rogers) when you encounter them in reading your Greek New Testament.
6.4 THE FUTURE INDICATIVE AND THE OTHER MODES OF EIMI 
6.41 The verb eigi is deponent in the future indicative, and has the lexal k- and the endings of the middle of 2;t5co (but note that the 3rd person singular form is c,s-'rat, not "eaEwa"). 
6.42 INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE IMPERATIVE INFINITIVE PARTICIPLE Future Present Present Present: ervat thy oijo-a ov Si &To,uat CO I' Future: Eaea6at kcroyevog, -77, -ov 2 E077 llg icret (The declension of thy 3 Ecnat 13 &-rcohjt-co follows #D5.11. See P1 kaoyeeaCriyIEV #C6, Conjugation 2 $fTeogt9E TITE EazE Conspectus, for the 3 Eaovrat dig t (v) 65-rcoaav eipi Paradigm.) 
6.43 NOTE> that there are several forms of the subjunctive and participle of which are differentiated from other words only by their accent, breathing, and/or iota subscript (and two forms, in fact, which are identical with others): 
(a) The 1st person singular subjunctive di is identical in form with the exclamation "0" or "oh". 
(b) The 2nd person singular subjunctive rjg differs only in having an iota subscript from the 2nd person singular imperfect of eipi (#3.81). 
(c) The 3rd person singular subjunctive 73 differs in accent and iota subscript from "or" or "than" (#4.15). 
(d) The 2nd person plural TITE is identical in form for the subjunctive and the imperfect of 
(e) The masculine nominative singular participle div [see also #8.34(a)] is to be distinguished from div the genitive plural of the relative pronoun (#4.15) by the breathing and accent. (0 The neuter nominative singular participle eiv is to be distinguished from eiv the masculine accusative singular of the relative pronoun (#4.15) by its breathing. 

SIX: THE MIDDLE AND PASSIVE VOICE 81 
6.5 THE PARADIGM OF THE PASSIVE VOICE 
6.50 The passive voice in Greek is a distinct voice different from the active and middle in sense. However, it only has distinctive passive forms – with the passive morph – in the future and aorist tenses; for the present and perfect tense systems, the passive borrows and uses the corresponding forms of the middle voice. This means that whenever the middle forms of the durative or perfective are used, they could be either middle or passive in meaning. Thus it becomes a question of exegesis and interpretation to say which is intended. 
INDICATIVE Present Future Perfect
S1 tOrjaoyat 2 Averj 3 Aver-jar/rat P1 A.vOrio-opeea 2 Av9ri6e68e 3 A,verjaovrat INFINITIVE 2,v9rjaeoVat PARTICIPLE i Avaricroyevoc
Points to notice:
Imperfect Aorist oct5eriv oct5eng eAl')Ori e2;661r7pev eAtjenTE eA;69no-av
2,vefival
SUBJUNCTIVE Present Aorist i .1v1965 AvOrig Avarj Aveciiiiev Aver-ire Avea50-t(v)
),v0eig,9ei6a, AvOev, ,0evToc
IMPERATIVE Present Aorist
t 2;t5Orytt 2,v9rjro)
2,1jOriTe 21)194Tcoo-av
6.51 In the table, a dash (—) indicates that the form does not exist; an obelus (t) means that there are no special passive forms for that flexion but instead in these cases the middle forms are used for the passive voice as well as for the middle voice. 
6.52 The passive morph is -Oe-, the -e- of which lengthens into -77- before a consonant (except in the aorist participle), and contracts with the following vowel (the lengthened neutral morph) in the subjunctive. There is thus for most verbs a very clear indication of the passive in all its special forms. The passive morph occupies the fifth of the verb's nine morph slots. 
6.53 The aorist indicative passive is formed by adding the passive morph -OE- (which lengthens to - On-) to the lexal, and to this are then added directly the endings of the third aorist active (from which in fact the passive was developed, as described in #C3.86; see also #7.72-7.73). That is to say, like the third aorist, the aorist passive does not have an aspect morph. 
6.54 The future indicative passive is formed from the aorist indicative passive by replacing the final -v of the flexion form with -o-opat, that is, with the endings of the future middle flexion. Thus the presence of the passive morph -077- is the sole feature which distinguishes the future passive from the future middle. That is, -en- switches the verb form from middle voice to passive voice. 
6.55 The aorist subjunctive passive has the same pronoun endings as the aorist subjunctive active (#4.21), adding them to the passive morph -OE-, which is taken instead of the active/middle punctiliar morph -cr-. The -e- of the passive morph then contracts (#6.8) with the endings, and this contraction is marked by the circumflex accent over the contracted long vowels. 
6.56 There are, however, some verbs which make their passive flexion without the -0- of the passive morph (so that in these verbs the passive morph is just -E- or -71-: this flexion is called a direct flexion – these are discussed below, in #10.9 and #C4); and at times some of the forms of these verbs may not immediately be recognized as passives because of the absence of the -9- of the 

82 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
usual passive morph. The future passive is always derived directly from the form of the aorist passive, so if the latter is a direct flexion, then the future passive will be a direct flexion also. 
6.57 The ending of the 2nd person singular imperative passive is -et, which would give the form "Aljeriet". However, Greek seeks to avoid having successive syllables commencing with an aspirate (see #E2.8). The passive morph -OE- never loses its aspiration, so the aspiration is lost from the ending, which becomes -it, and thus the form is 2,69Ty2i. But when the imperative ending is added to any verb which has a direct flexion, that ending is -61, because in the case of a direct flexion the ending does not follow another -0-. The remaining forms of the aorist passive imperative have the same pronoun endings as the aorist active imperative (#4.21). 
6.58 The feminine participle, A,velefaa, having a sibilant stem, is declined like &got (#3.15); the masculine and neuter forms Gaut9eig, 2v6ev, genitive 1 v9ev2og) follow the usual Third Declension pattern (see eipzcov, dipxovrog, in #5.44) and are set out in full in Appendix D, #D5.17. 
6.59 Where Knowing Greek Makes a Difference: The Aijco compound duccAlko is the word for "I divorce", and ki5o) itself has this meaning when used in a context about marriage, and in such a context SEW refers to being in the marriage bond (Romans 7:2; 1 Corinthians 7:39; cf. 1 Corinthians 7:15). As there is no separate Greek flexion for the passive perfect tense, the middle forms are used (#6.50, 6.51). Thus the form AiA.vo-at (see #6.25) means "you have been loosed" or, in a context relating to marriage, "you have been divorced"; and similarly 6e8eaat means "you have become joined in the bonds of marriage". In each case the perfect tense form is looking at the present state resulting from a prior act [#4.31(c)]. These words occur in 1 Corinthians 7:27, where Paul says, in a context about marriage, 8e8eo-at yvvatici; µi cri2El ,1361,V, "Have you become bound [in marriage] to a wife? Do not seek a divorce." He then goes on, A,e,a,vo-at (bra yvvattc6; ,u7) ;rim yvvalica, "Have you been divorced from a wife? Do not seek a wife." He then immediately adds, My 8e Kai yogi:rim-3c, °iv riyareg, "But if indeed you do marry, you have not sinned." The construction shows that Paul is addressing the same person, the one who has been divorced, when he says "But if indeed you do marry". Paul's teaching is clear in the Greek: If you have entered a marriage, do not seek to break that marriage bond with your wife. If you have become divorced, do not seek for a new wife. But if you (the person who has been divorced) do marry, then this remarriage is not a sin. This teaching is in line with what Paul has said earlier in this chapter: as the Lord himself commanded, marriage partners are not to break up (verse 10, citing Matthew 19:6). If a marriage does break up, then the former marriage partner is now dyapoc, "unmarried" — let that person continue unmarried in hope that there can be a reconciliation (verse 11). However, speaking realistically, such a reconciliation may not be possible: what then? In verse 8 Paul addresses all who are dya,uot (and, as we have just seen, the word includes those who are divorced). He tells them to see if they can now remain unmarried as he himself did, but adds that if they cannot live celibate then ya,uriadcroxYav, "they must marry" — third person aorist imperative (verse 9). If you know Greek, you will recognize the significance, for understanding Paul's meaning, of these words otyapot, yaptio-thcoo-av, and the perfect tense 2L.vcrat. Some versions of the Bible translate A,OLvaat in 1 Corinthians 7:27 as a present tense (for example, NRSV, "Are you free from a wife?"; and the very ambiguous NIV, "Are you unmarried?"), obscuring the fact that when Paul says "you have not sinned" he is addressing someone who has been divorced and has remarried. 
6.6 SELF-TESTING REVIEW 
6.61 MEANING SYNOPSIS OF THE GREEK VERB: You have now been introduced to all nine morph slots of the Greek verb. And all the forms of Paradigm C1.1, A..tjw, have now been introduced (except the rarely used optative, and perfect subjunctive). The flexion form for each flexion, and its meaning, will be found set out in the Meaning Synopsis of the Greek Verb, #C0.4. 

SIX: THE MIDDLE AND PASSIVE VOICE 83 
6.62 REVIEW the Indicative Mode (#C0.43), and satisfy yourself that you can correctly identify the tense and voice, and the meaning, of each of these forms. To do this, cover the right-hand (English meaning) part of each column with a piece of paper, exposing only the left-hand Greek forms, and alongside each Greek word write on your piece of paper its tense, voice and meaning. Remove the paper and verify the correctness of your answers. To extend your knowledge further, you can do this with the other modes also.
6.63 RCOMPLETE PARADIGM OF THE VERB: The complete paradigm of the forms of ki.° is set out in #C1.1. Go through this paradigm to ensure that you are familiar (except for the optative) with the verb patterns given there, and know them well enough to recognize the characteristic morphs which indicate person, number, tense, voice, and mode. 
6.64 DIAGRAM OF THE NINE VERB MORPH SLOTS: Note #A6.2 and A6.3, which set out a complete diagram of the nine morph slots of the verb and of what morphs can occur in each slot. 
6.7 RCONCERNING THE SECOND AORIST AND THE IMPERFECT 
6.71 It has been seen (#4.23, #4.37) that the first aorist active is formed by prefixing the augment to the verb lexal and adding first the punctiliar morph -aa- (-a- before vowels) and then the active suffixes of the pronoun ending. Thus the 1st person plural first aorist active of co is e-A,v-aa-pev. The second aorist active is formed in the same way, but with the neutral morph -E/o-used instead of the punctiliar morph (#3.81, #4.36). Thus the 1st person plural second aorist active of Petaw is k-f3a2,-o-REv. 
6.72 This pattern is followed by the aorist in the middle voice also, the fact that the form is middle not active being indicated by the use of the middle suffixes of the pronoun ending. Thus the 1st person singular of the first aorist middle, as seen in Aijco, is k-,,v-aa-yriv, and the 1st person singular of the second aorist middle, as seen in fkicao), is e-PaA-o-itriv. 
6.73 The imperfect is also formed by adding to the lexal: an augment, the neutral morph, and the appropriate pronoun suffix. This means that for Second Conjugation verbs (that is, those with a second aorist), the only difference between their imperfect and aorist flexions is in their lexal. Seven Second Conjugation verbs use completely different lexals in the present (and these are set out in #7.6); most of the rest — there are only two exceptions — add an extra morph to their lexal as a durative morph in forming their durative stem, for the present and imperfect tenses. For Sca2,co this durative morph is the second -A-- which is added to the verb root saA,-. Thus the Imperfect and Aorist Indicative Middle flexions, and the flexions for other modes of the second aorist middle, are: 
IMPERFECT Indicative Si 0a2A6uriv 2 430,A,ov 3 ef30,AETo P1 OaaopesSia 2 460,2,ea6E 3 e13Cia0V20
SECOND AORIST Indicative Subjunctive Imperative
46a2,6unv ei3aov Oa LETo OaAoitte0a ei@oaEat9E kikaovTo
Peawpat — f3carii PaAof) PdariTat f3a2,eaeco (3aAtoye9a f3laria0e Pdaectie PeawvTat f3aAe68coaav
Infinitive PaAeaeat Participle PaA6Atevog (3aA,opevri f3a2,6,uevov Pa2,Quevov
PRESENT Infinitive f3cia)LEaeat Participle [3a2,2,6yevog f3aA)Loyevr7 PaaoktEvov PaAAo,uevov
6.74 Compare the forms of the Imperfect and Aorist Indicative, and note that the only difference between them is whether they do or do not have the second -A-, the durative morph. Similarly, this is the only difference between the forms of the Present and the Aorist in the other modes (the forms of the Present Infinitive and Participle are given here alongside those of the Aorist for comparison). 

84 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
6.75 The durative morph is added into the verb's lexal, and thus in morphologizing the verb (#3.93) the durative morph will be placed with the lexal in the lexal slot (Slot 4). A morph which is placed into the lexal in this way is termed an infix (#1.92). The durative morph in the lexal is the only infix which occurs in Greek — all other morphs are prefixes or suffixes or process morphs. [A partial exception to this is the iota added into the lexal of some liquid verbs in compensation for the loss of the punctiliar -o--: see #4.57(a).]
6.8 CONTRACT VERBS (PARADIGMS C1.2, C1.3 AND C1.4) 
6.81 The most numerous group of Greek verbs (404 out of a total of 1000 verbs in the New Testament) are those which end in a short vowel, either -a (78), -e (235), or -o (91). In the durative tenses (the present and imperfect), the neutral morph is added to the lexal, which in the case of these verbs will mean adding E or o (or when the neutral morph has been lengthened, 77 or co) to the short vowel (-a, -E or -o). When they thus come together, these two vowels (the short vowel of the lexal and the neutral morph) combine and form either a long vowel or a diphthong. This combining is known as contraction, and these verbs which contract the final vowel of their lexal with the neutral morph are therefore known as "Short Vowel Verbs" and also "contract verbs". 
6.82 Contraction takes place in accordance with specific rules. These rules are given in detail in #E2.2; the common ones (which therefore need to be noted now) are set out here: 
This table shows the contractions which take place. When it is followed by E 17 El 13 0 01) CO then: a contracts to a a ce a co cv co E contracts to Et rj Cl ov ov co o contracts to ov Co 01 01 ov ov
6.83 Points to note:
(a) Any short vowel plus cv is absorbed into it.
(b) a plus E or ri becomes long a; if there is an t, it will be iota subscript on the long a.
(c) a plus o, ov or co becomes Co.
(d) e plus e or et becomes et.
(e) e plus ri or 73 is absorbed into it.
(f) E plus o or ov, o plus E, 0, or 01) becomes ov.
(g) o plus n becomes co.
(h) o plus et or 73 becomes ot.
6.84 NOTE the accent on a contracted form. Where an acute accent would fall on the short final vowel in the uncontracted form, then the contracted vowel/diphthong will bear a circumflex. Thus rtycio) contracts to -Rua 2zaeopev to ALaofwev, iaripoetc to iaripoic, and so on. This circumflex accent should be noted, because frequently it fulfils a useful role in alerting you to a contraction. (This is the tenth occasion when an accent should be noted; for earlier ones, see #A1.37, #2.88, #3.37, #4.15, #4.94, #A4.23, #5.86, #5.88, and #6.43.)
6.85 The above information should assist in enabling you to recognize a contract verb form when you encounter one. Contract verbs in -a, -e, and -o comprise respectively Paradigms C1.2, C1.3 and C1.4 of the First Conjugation, and these paradigms, showing both the uncontracted and contracted forms, are set out in Appendix C under these references. In tenses other than the present and imperfect, the suffix that is added to the lexal commences with a consonant, and so no contraction of vowels occurs. 

SIX: THE MIDDLE AND PASSIVE VOICE 85 
6.86 All contract verbs are listed in the lexicon in their uncontracted form, because you need to know what that uncontracted form is. But they are always used in their contracted form. In practice ou will have little difficulty in recognizing and identifying a contract verb from its features — you will at times, however, have to check on the three possibilities for the lexical form of a contract verb (whether the lexal has -a, or -o), because the form used in a Greek passage will not always reveal if the verb ends in -acs, -ECO, or -00). 
6.87 As noted in #4.56 and #A4.23, liquid verbs add -E not -a in forming the future tense. But the neutral morph is then added to the future morph in forming the future. This means that the future tense of liquid verbs thus always has an -E- (future morph) followed by a neutral morph. It is therefore a contract flexion, and follows the pattern of 2,a2Leco, C1.3. Liquid verbs comprise Paradigms C1.8 and C1.9 of the First Conjugation, and these paradigms are set out in Appendix C under those references. In addition to those mentioned there, two other contracted futures occur in the New Testament: the deponents (c'tiro)0aveopai, from (earo)Ovrjo-ww (see #C2.4, #C7.6), and zeceo,uat, from n-brao (see #C2.1). 
6.88 Contraction also occurs in the other verb flexion where a short vowel is followed by another vowel: in the aorist passive subjunctive (#6.50), where the passive morph -Oe- is followed by the lengthened neutral morph. The same principles of contraction will operate in these forms. 
6.9 THE REFLEXIVE PRONOUN 
6.91 The reflexive pronouns refer to something directed towards oneself, as in "You shall love your neighbour as (you love) yourself'. 6.92 There can be no nominative; it declines in the oblique cases on the pattern of ay-roc (#3.32). There are forms for the three persons in the singular, but there was only one form in the plural, used for all persons. For first and second person singular, "myself" and "yourself", there were both masculine and feminine forms, and in the third person all three genders can be found. 6.93 epaurov, -rjv 1st person singular, "myself" 6EaVT6V, -rjv 2nd person singular, "yourself" kaurov, -0, -6 3rd person singular, "himself", etc. eaura6g, -ac, -6 1sti2nd/3rd plural, "ourselves", "yourselves", "themselves" 
ASSIGNMENTS ON LESSON SIX 1. PARADIGMS FOR LEARNING: The paradigms to be learnt by heart this Lesson are: 12. Present Indicative Middle of A;t3a) (#6.25): ,aijoyat 13. Perfect Indicative Middle of kow (#6.25): ,a.avitat 14. Imperfect Indicative Middle of koco (#6.25): avokinv 15. Other Modes of the Middle (#6.29): Present Imperative, Infinitive and Participle of )Liko 16. Future Indicative of eiyi (#6.42): P.o-opat 17. florist Passive Indicative of 2,ijo) (#6.50): kAt56riv 2. LEARNING THE OTHER MAJOR PARADIGMS OF THE MIDDLE AND PASSIVE: Aim to understand how the other flexions are formed from these ones set for rote learning, so that you will be able to recognize the forms of those other flexions which result. That is, seek to learn the forms of the other flexions by understanding rather than by rote. 3. APPENDIX: READ CAREFULLY the additional information set out in the Appendix, #A6. Especially NOTE the diagram of the Morph Slots of the Verb.

86 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
4. WORKBOOK: ANSWER THE QUESTIONS in your Workbook about this Lesson. 5. TRANSLATION EXERCISES A AND B: Do the English into Greek exercises, and then read and translate literally all the Selections from the Greek New Testament. Make sure that you continue the pattern of reading each Selection aloud before translating it, to help cultivate your "feel" for the Greek. NOTE: To do this work you will need to use the paradigms set for learning this Lesson, together with the paradigms and vocabulary of the previous Lessons. The new prepositions given below, and the cases they take, should be carefully noted. Most of the Selections introduce new vocabulary which is then used again in the Selections which follow. LEARN each unknown word as you use it. 6. VOCABULARY CARDS: Continue the practice of writing out Vocabulary Cards for the new words introduced in this Lesson, putting 6 (for "Lesson 6") in the top lefthand corner of each side of the Card. Make out the card for each new word as you come to it in the Sentences below; some words will be used in several Sentences. When you are given a word form and what it comes from, put the word it comes from at the top of your Card, and the information about that word form lower on the Card. Add these Cards to your collection, and place them all in alphabetical order. When additional information is provided about a word which you have had in a previous Lesson, add that information to your existing Vocabulary Card for that word. (Don't forget to put on your Card the case(s) taken by each preposition.) 7. ABBREVIATIONS IN THE NOTES (BELOW): see page 12.
PREPOSITIONS
*thie (+acc) because of, on account of
*&oc (+gen) until ogioyo (+gen) after
A. TRANSLATION FROM ENGLISH INTO GREEK (This may be done as an exercise in class at the end of the Lesson, or set as an assignment.) SENTENCES NOTES AND NEW WORDS Al. And (Se) why do you call me, 'Lord, Lord', call: *Kcaeco and do not do what I say?" (LUKE 6:46) A2. The stars will fall from the heaven. star: cio-rrip, -epo; (5; (MATTHEW 24:29) fall: *zig-ao; future: Ireaeo,uat
A3. For our (emphatic) citizenship is in (the) heavens, out of which also we expectantly await a saviour, (the) Lord Jesus Christ. (PHILIPPIANS 3:20) A4. You shall call his name Jesus, for he (emphatic) will save his people from their sins. (MATTHEW 1:21) A5. His father was a Greek. was: imperfect of * i')/rapzco; (ACTS 16:3) a Greek: "Early, -rivoc, 6 A6. Jesus said to him, "Do you (emphatic) believe in (Eic) the Son of Man?" That man answered and said, "And who is he, Lord, in order that I should believe in him?" (JOHN 9:35-36)
citizenship: gaai-rewia, -aroc, 1-6; be, exist: *157rapzco; expectantly await: dureK6exoyat
future of * KaAeco: Ka) eo-co; people, a people: *ila6c, -of), 6
answered: c'ureKpien (from *darovivoyat, passive deponent)


• ' • JOU • • • Jattr!au :• 3.1c,10 ••31c10* tti2noilp luani `ti2no.tql 211) :aaocidoig truals :o221t3n tjapp :o 'no- `51111t3n t/Cansop :(o5in;o039 `.Isms `uoIsonoo :11 '50)3- '51pcpcig tgiolu(-satpolo) :o '59141_045p tamsuan :9 4ao- 45oclaioDue taiumumoou 'du aJois :(/),/claDDlie auolsillwill!Lu :o `ao- `5oycir1 tpup2 :co6qTyp jo aid •said Id •woj :DopaoeIroo talusioj `pumaci aArai `nittOp* Jo •ssud said s wo230x3 tfuote `X-eneve :wfuogdanchau (aApup molloj :mgen.oycoop* :SSOJO (ail) :o ?JO `5901a202D tdn IJ I `dn :o)cipo* Jo AdUJI •JOU 2SE :on,pcip 4.6.9# oas — (OAIXOUOJ) ROSOU0 :/192(1303* tOpunouai `umosIp `Xuap :('dap) notiogAdvaip UJOJJ AdtUI "JOU J•S :avDpDhAthozp pua `uopaidwoo 45x3- 4m3324aD t(wsluNaH) sicumiu --.5)odgriy 529.2, 5;f9Dp11 tJapio `puuwwoo :(•iup + -dap) 113170y'1324.3 :SU (1U0.12 `Auuw) Hanoi SL :40- `1,i- `5oD9* ttplUAN `anlasclo 'cloo3i:coqdlu,* t(AdUli *JOU idZ) gicipsm aluw :ox,)321.toion' t(4,• • • puu o2„ suuaw •Adwl uu ig parnolloj old) o2 `(•dap) von'oci3do11* wag old 'JOU :53/A319(13C/011 t/Cipotpriu :4 452o- `io/Daoq* `irkogw* WOJJ •SSUd 'JOU 2sE Iteog
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smau pool qouald ‘tulutoo.K1 :m51?3/tA,209,3* wag 2's :0212p1o4At1c13
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88 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
B7. 6 7ricrof)c ErgEv afrrofg, Ilopeveevreg darayyei)LaTE 1wavvr,i a aKov'ETE Kai f3AegETE. 21)02.0i aVagAeTCOVO-1V !cal xogoi IrepuraTor)o-tv, AzIrpoi Kat9apicovtat Kai Ko)0o1 c'ex-a)ovo-tv, Kai veKpoi yeipovTat Kai 7rTwxoi Ef)ayyeA,IcovTat. Kai yaKaptog ko-Ttv og eav yr) o-Kavocato-01,1 epoi.
(KATA 1VIAO0AION 11:4-6) B8. (a) "Aaovg o-o)o-Ev, o-ox7dcTo) kavrov, El oZTOg kaTlii 6 Xpto-Tag- Tof) Oeof) 6 kKA,EKT6c. (KATA AOTKAN23:35) (/3) El cri) el 6 Pact)Lerog 2o3v 7ov8aiwv, o-clicov o-EavT6v. (KATA AOTKAN 23:37) (y) 01)zi cri) er, 6 XptoToc; coicrov oEavthv Kai ill flag. (KATA AOTKAN 23:39) (6) 'Inca, ,uvriaeriTi ktov ehav afkic-eig f3autAziav Gov. (KATA AOTKAN23:42) (E) Auriv cot 2,eyco, aripEpov el0f) C37:1Ev 2CO Kapa8eiacp. (KATA AOTKAN23:43) B9. "Atog Er, 6 Kt5ptog Kai 6 9Eac fip,o5v, A..aPeiv Try v 86av Kai rill/ Ttyr)v Kai TO otjvautv, ort o-1) bato-ac Tet 7TaVITX, Kai Sta To WAILLta o-ov rlaav Kai k Kticencray. (ATIOKAAPPIE Ii2ANNOT 4:11) B10. Kai rjKovo-a Ocovlig pEydarig elC Tof) Opovov Azyoikrric-, '1801) ri alcrivii Tot) 0E0f) 'JET& rci3v avepokwv, Kai o-Krivokret ,LLE2' afno5v, Kai afnoi af.)Toi5 o-ovTat, Kai at'nbc 6 t9eac ,LiEf af)2o5v afyro5v t9e6c-, Kai kaA,Eitifet gay 8dogyvov EK rcov 600capaiv afno5v, Kai 6 OavaToc of)K EG2al ET t, oihE trev(oc ofiTe Kpavyr) ofirE Kovoc of)K (51-1 th rpdra arfplOay. oi5rOt of )06yot Irlatth Kai dariestvoi Elatv. (AHOKAATTE IDANNOT 21:3-5)
alrayyeaw: announce, report, inform (2p1 aor. impv); avaiRew: see again; zoAog, -ov: lame; *IrEpuratew: walk around, move about, [live one's life]; Aorpog, of), 6: leper; KaOapico): cleanse, make clean; Kw0dc, -4, -6v: deaf; dumb; *vek-pog, -ov: dead; *kyeipw: raise (3p1 pass.); gmx6g, -6v: poor; *paKaptoc, -a, -ov: blessed, happy, fortunate; o-Kav8a2Licor cause to stumble, give offence, anger (someone) — in the pass., take offence, be made angry *kavTov: #6.93; kK.I.EKrog, -4,-6v: elect, chosen;
,uvricrarirt: 2sg dep. aor. impv. from ptiuvrjaKoitai (dep., takes gen.): remember (something, someone); *(51-av: whenever (indefinite — contrast the decisiveness of Christ's reply: "today");
aripEpov: today, this very day; gapa8Eto-og, -ov, 6: paradise, garden
gtog, -ov: worthy, deserving; AaPEN: aor2 inf. from *AapPavo): receive, take; Ttgrj, rei: honour, respect; *615vaiuzg, -EC0c, r): power; baterag: 2sg aor. from Klicco: create; *OeAripa, tó: will; kKtio-Orio-av: 3p1 aor. pass. from icricco: create *Opovoc, -ov, 6: throne; A,Eyoi)o-rig: fem. sg gen. ptc from *Aiyco, agreeing with Ocovfic-; ovrivri, tent, dwelling; avivoco: live, dwell; afxrac 6 0E6c: God himself (*af)Toc-in front of the article = self); k&.Eicpco: wipe away; Savvov, -ov, To: tear; *OavaToc-, -ov, 6: death; q21. still, longer; ireveog, -ova, ró: sorrow, sadness, grief; Kpavyri, III: crying, shout; govoc, -ov, 6: pain, suffering; deA,rietvoc, -rj, -6v: true, genuine
SUPPLEMENTARY PASSAGES IN THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
B11. MARK 6:1-6 B12. JOHN 1:1-5

</div>

<div id="L7" class="Lesson">
LESSON SEVEN 
ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS; THE SECOND AND THIRD CONJUGATIONS 
7.1 CORRESPONDING ADJECTIVES/PRONOUNS 
7.11 Greek contains sets of adjectives/pronouns which differ in function and are related in meaning (and often, in root). These corresponding sets are:

<table>
 <tr><th>TYPE</th><th>INTERROGATIVE</th><th>INDEFINITE</th><th>DEMONSTRATIVE</th><th>RELATIVE</th></tr>
 <tr><th>Identification</th><td>τίς; who?</td><td>τις anyone</td><td>ὁ, ὅδε, οὗτος this (one) ἐκεῖνος that, that one</td><td>ὅς who, which ὅστις who-, whichever</td></tr>
 <tr><th>Quantity</th><td>πόσος; how much/many?</td><td>ποσός of some quantity</td><td>τοσοῦτος so (as) much/many/great (as)</td><td>ὅσος as great/much/many as</td></tr>
 <tr><th>Quality</th><td>ποῖος of what kind? ποταπός of what kind?</td><td>ποιός of some kind</td><td>τοιόσδε of such kind τοιοῦτος of such kind</td><td>οἷος of what kind ὁποῖος such as</td></tr>
 <tr><th>Size</th><td>πηλίκος how large/great?</td><td>-</td><td>τηλικοῦτος so large, so great</td><td>ἡλίκος how large/great</td></tr>
 <tr><th>Distribution</th><td>πότερος which of the two?</td><td>-</td><td>ἕτερος the one or the other/another/different ἄλλος other ἕκαστος each, each one</td><td>-</td></tr>
</table>

7.12 Most of these words can occur either with a noun (that is, the word is functioning as an adjective), or without a noun (that is, the word is functioning as a pronoun). 
7.13 Note how τοσοῦτος, τοιοῦτος and τηλικοῦτος are formed by replacing the initial ῾/τ- of οὗτος with τοσ-, τοι- and τηλικ- respectively. The declension of the flexion of each of these words follows οὗτος. 
7.14 ME, Ti8E, To& is a demonstrative pronoun/adjective formed by adding the enclitic 6E to the definite article, which is declined in the ordinary way. Its meaning is the same as that of oZrog: "this/these" (without a noun, "this man/woman/thing"). It does not often occur in the New Testament, and the majority of its occurrences is in the expression Ta8e 2, yet plus the speaker in the nominative, as in Acts 21:11, id& Xeyet Tà nve13,ua zo aytov, "These things says the Holy Spirit." 
7.15 oo-Ttg, fiTtg, 21 is a relative pronoun similar in meaning to og, if, 5, but made rather general or indefinite by the addition of -Ttg, meaning "whoever, everyone who", etc. The neuter ö Tt is often written that way, as two words, to distinguish it from 5Tt, "that, because". Otherwise the two parts of the word are written in combination together as a single word — but both parts of the word are declined in the usual way, as if they were separate words, to show gender, case, and number. However, the New Testament use of this common Greek word is very limited, and virtually confined to the nominative case and the neuter accusatives, singular and plural. Sometimes the indefinite particle div is also used with oo-Ttg to stress the indefinite element in its meaning. At times, however, ooTtg is used without any real difference in meaning from the simple form, og. 
7.16 In classical Greek, 't.epog meant "another of a different kind", whereas eiaog meant "another of the same kind". Something of this distinction can be found at times in New Testament Greek, but it is not strictly observed. 
89 


90 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
7.2 CORRESPONDING ADVERBS 
7.21 Just as Greek had a system of corresponding adjectives/pronouns, so also it had a system of corresponding adverbs. This system had been more complete in classical times, but some of the parts had fallen out of colloquial use in Hellenistic Greek (much as our English patterns "where, whence, whither", "there, thence, thither" and "here, hence, hither" have contracted down to just "where", "there" and "here" and the other forms, if used at all, have a somewhat archaic flavour). 
7.22 In particular there is less use of the indefinite forms (which are enclitic — that is, they throw their accent on the word preceding them: see #E6.3). 
7.23 The corresponding adverbs are: 

<table>
 <tr><th>TYPE</th><th>INTERROGATIVE</th><th>INDEFINITE</th><th>DEMONSTRATIVE</th><th>RELATIVE</th></tr>
 <tr><th>Time</th><td>πότε; when?</td><td>ποτέ at some time</td><td>τότε then</td><td>ὅτε when ὁπότε when</td></tr>
 <tr><th>Place</th><td>ποῦ where?</td><td>πού somewhere</td><td>ἐκεῖ there ἐνθάδε here</td><td>οὗ; where ὅπου where</td></tr>
 <tr><th>Source</th><td>πόθεν; whence?</td><td>ποθέν from some place</td><td>ἐκεῖθεν thence ἔνθεν from here ἐντεῦθεν from here</td><td>ὅθεν from where, whence (ὁπόθεν) from where</td></tr>
 <tr><th>Manner</th><td>πῶς; how?</td><td>πώς somehow</td><td>οὕτως thus, in this way</td><td>ὡς as, in which way ὅπως in order that</td></tr>
 <tr><th>Frequency</th><td>ποσάκις; how often?</td><td>-</td><td>πολλάκις often, frequently</td><td>ὁσάκις whenever, as often as</td></tr>
</table>

7.24 NOTE that for both corresponding adjectives/pronouns and corresponding adverbs, the interrogative and indefinite forms are spelt the same, but differ in accent. In two-syllable words the interrogative form has the accent on the first syllable and the indefinite form has it on the second syllable, and on monosyllables the interrogative form has a stronger accent than the indefinite form (compare Tic I Tic; rocroglzocog, rofoghrotog, 7rdzehro-re; Irof)/Tw'o; Kot9EvbroOev; Ka5chrojc). 
7.3 FORMATION OF ADVERBS: THE REGULAR PATTERN 
7.31 Most of the common adverbs of the New Testament are the same in form as the corresponding adjective in the genitive plural, but with -ς instead of -ν. 

<table>
 <tr><td>7.32</td><th>Adjective</th><th>Its Genitive Plural</th><th>Adverb</th></tr>
 <tr><td></td>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><td>ἀληθής</td><td>true</td></tr>
 <tr><td>δίκαιος</td><td>righteous, just</td></tr>
 <tr><td>κακός</td><td>bad</td></tr>
 <tr><td>καλός</td><td>good</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ὅμοιος</td><td>like</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><td>ἀληθῶν</td></tr>
 <tr><td>δικαίων</td></tr>
 <tr><td>κακῶν</td></tr>
 <tr><td>καλῶν</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ὁμοίων</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><td>ἀληθῶς</td><td>truly</td></tr>
 <tr><td>δικαίως</td><td>justly</td></tr>
 <tr><td>κακῶς</td><td>badly</td></tr>
 <tr><td>καλῶς</td><td>well</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ὁμοίως</td><td>similarly</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td></tr>
</table>



7.33 But also note these forms: 
oi5-rog 7rpoyrog elCEIVOg eic/e
this first that out of (preposition)

can 005v 61Kaicov K a lc cav ica2,6 v oiwicov
ZO'Orcov irpoircov eiceivaw
dariedig 8iKaiwg icalcci) Kea*. opoiwg ofircog n-po5rov eICEI Ct)

thus firstly there outside


SEVEN: ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS; SECOND AND THIRD CONJUGATIONS 91 
7.4 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 
7.41 The standard or basic form of an adjective or adverb is referred to as the positive degree. There are two other forms which it can have: it can be used in the comparative degree (strictly speaking, comparison of two instances or examples), and the superlative degree (strictly speaking, used of an instance or example that exceeds two or more others). These correspond with the sequence great, greater, greatest; short, shorter, shortest in English, where the comparative and superlative forms are made by the addition of the suffixes -er and -est. For some English words, however, a change in the word is made: as for example in the comparisons good, better, best; bad, orse, worst; little, less, least. 
7.42 There are the same two types of comparatives and superlatives in Greek: those formed by adding a suffix to the positive stem (the more common), and those formed by a change in the form the word itself. 
7.43 The comparative suffix is -repo; and the superlative suffix is -z-otroc. If the second-last owel of the word is short, then the last vowel will become long in the comparative and superlative stem, before the ending. Thus:thin-IA.6c,-, -OtifriAoTEpog, ifAirriAot-aToc,- high, higher, highest coOdc, coOdn-epoc, co0corara; wise, wiser, wisest 
7.44 The forms in --'Epos decline like dm; and the forms in -1-cerog- decline like Ka)* (see Appendix D, #D4.1 and D4.2). 
7.45 These are the adjectives which use different word forms (those in brackets are not found in :he New Testament): Positive Comparative Superlative ccraeog. good Kpeico-wy better kpartatOc most excellent (f3e;tTICOV) better (6a/r1070c) best ak-og- bad xEipcov worse 99 
ijo-o-coy worse, less ,__ E;l ac great pei cow greater ithytcrToc greatest , ,_.zkpoc little pticpo'repo; less — kAdeccow less kAaxicroc least 5, ,70;61; much, many n-Aeicoy more KAefaroc most &TxaTog. last Comparatives in -coy decline like dOpow (see Appendix D, #D4.8).
7.46 The comparative of an adverb is the neuter singular of the corresponding comparative acljec-:\ e. The superlative of an adverb is the neuter plural of the corresponding superlative adjective. 
7.47 These are the adverbs which use different forms in the comparative and superlative degrees :hose in brackets are not found in the New Testament): Positive Comparative Superlative 6; near eyytj'repov nearer Eyyi6Ta nearest ic c7-0 well /30L-ctov very well ([30,2tara) 99 'we-lc-coy better - (5-0)(,- gladly (fiotoy) fiSia-ca most gladly e k-a ico5g- badly ri Quo v worse, less (ijk-to-Ta) ,:u;o5g- well icdcA2L. to v better ( IcocA,)„ tam) LIckAa) peolitoy more paA t o-Ta most of all 7E pay across 7repal-cepo) further — -7..o).-6 much 7adov more (7aeio-Ta) 7cczewc quickly Taztov more quickly raztara most quickly 

92 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
7.48 A comparative may be followed by (a) a genitive of comparison (discussed in #9.44(e); examples, Selections L5/B15; L9/B12); or (b) by "than", in which instance the things being compared will have the same case. For example: 
John 4:1: 'I7r7o-of)c rAziovac 'Jaen-rag- Irotel Kai f3aIrricet 7coavvric Jesus is making and is baptizing more disciples than John
7.49 The superlative forms of adjective and adverb are rarely used in the New Testament, and when they do occur they are more likely to have what is called an "elative" sense (that is, they mean "very" or something similar), than they are to have a strict superlative sense. Often, when the superlative is meant, the comparative form is used; and on frequent occasions when a comparative meaning is intended, the positive form is used. For example: Mark 9:45: icca6v eaTIV CE eio-e2Beiv eig Trl v co* xwAav rj ... t better it is for you to enter into life lame than ... etc. t KTA. is the abbreviation for Kai to Aotird, = "and the rest", equivalent to English "etc." Mark 14:21 (L9/B16): icoaav afnip el, am eyevvrjeri 6 avepcogoc eiceivog. better for him if were not born that man. 
Clearly in these sentences Koa6v has the comparative sense, "better", rather than "good", so that these sentences do not mean, "It is good for you to enter into life lame than ... (etc.)", or "It would be good for that man if he had not been born." It is wise to bear this type of usage in mind when translating. However, on most occasions when the positive degree of an adjective is used it does not have comparative meaning, and we must be careful not to read it in. Thus: Mark 9:5 (L7/B24): Ka2,6v &my di6E ervat It is good for us to be here [not, It is better ...] 
7.5 ATTRIBUTIVE AND PREDICATIVE USE OF ADJECTIVES 
7.51 ATTRIBUTIVE USE OF ADJECTIVES: Where an adjective is used with an article and noun (that is, identifying the noun by reference to an attribute of that noun), the adjective goes either 
(a) between the article and noun, or 
(b) after the noun, with the article repeated before the adjective. These are the two forms of what is called the attributive use of the adjective, and these two positions can be described respectively as the Attributive Intermediate Position (that is, between article and noun) and the Attributive Post Position (that is, immediately after the noun, with only the repeated article between them). Some examples from the Selections for this Lesson: 
(a) Attributive Intermediate Position
Matthew 27:53 (L7/B1): Eicrf/Abov eic vjv ayiav 71-62,tv. they entered into the holy city. 
A phrase describing the noun (an adjectival phrase) can be put into the attributive intermediate position. For example, ev Aao8ticeice ("in Laodicea") in: Revelation 3:14 (L7/B2). Kai TO c'qye2v zis ev AaoSticeia hoc/Ilia-1a; And to the messenger of the church in Laodicea 

SEVEN: ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS; SECOND AND THIRD CONJUGATIONS 93 
b) Attributive Post Position Revelation 21:2 (L7/B3): Tfiv ayiav Er6ov I saw the holy city Some grammarians hold the view that the attributive post use of the adjective is more emphatic than the attributive intermediate position; but this is not agreed by others.) 
If more than one adjective is being used referring to the same noun, the repeated article is only used once in front of both adjectives: Revelation 3:14 (L7/132): 6 ,tiapTvg. 6 Teta-Tog rcai dariOtvog the faithful and true witness 
7.52 Notice that in both these forms of the attributive position, the adjective has the article immediately in front of it. NOTE: the possessive adjectives kyóg, "my", and oxig, "your" singular), take the article in the same way as any other adjective. (For examples, see L2/B25 and L3/B28 for the Attributive Intermediate Position, and L5/B10 for the Attributive Post Position.) An entire adjectival phrase can be used in this way as if it were an adjective, and the article will be used in front of it (see the discussion of this in #2.97 and an example L2/B5). 7.53 PREDICATIVE USE OF ADJECTIVES: By contrast, an adjective can be used as the complement of the verb "to be", that is, as the "completement" of the thought. Here, the adjective Is the predicate, and it is placed in the predicative position, which may be either prior to the article and noun (the Predicative Prior Position), or after the article and noun (the Predicative Post Position). Notice that it can never come between the article and its noun, or in any circumstances have the article immediately in front of it. Examples of the two forms of the Predicative Position from the Selections in these Lessons: 
e) Predicative Prior Position (with eigi) Hebrews 11:38 (L7/B4): c5v anc iv OD; 6 woo-yog of whom the world was not worthy Revelation 5:12 (L5/B19): gtov eativ To apviov To ecoaypevov worthy is the lamb that has been slain 
d) Predicative Post Position (with eiyi) 1 Corinthians 3:17 (L7/B5): 6 yap vans Tof) Oeoij dytog eaTtv for the temple of God is holy 
7.54 As the position of the words is an adequate indication of meaning, the verb "to be" is not 7-2-ally necessary, and so it is often omitted: e) Predicative Prior Position (without Luke 1:49 (L7/B6): Kai dytov TO 5voila ()dna and holy is his name Luke 10:7 (L7/A5): 6%tog 6 epyarrig Tor) ,uto-Oof) &nor) 1 Timothy 5:18 (L7/B7): worthy is the workman of his pay 
(1) Predicative Post Position (without eigi) Romans 7:12 (L7/B8): COOTE 6 kiev vo,uog dytog, 711 kvToAn ayia so the law is holy and the commandment is holy 
94 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
7.55 Where Knowing Greek Makes a Difference: One of the advantages of learning Greek is being able to examine New Testament passages, and compare the wording of different verses. The examples given above – from the Sentences at the end of this Lesson – include two verses which it is interesting to compare. The Scripture of 1 Timothy 5:18 (L7/B7) says, "The Scripture says, 'You shall not muzzle an ox while it is treading out the grain,' and, 'The laborer deserves to be paid.— (NRSV.) The first of the two quotations of what "the Scripture says" comes from Deuteronomy 25:4. And you can see that the second (L7/A5) is an exact word-for-word quotation of Luke 10:7. That is, one part of the New Testament gives an exact quote of another part of the New Testament, and calls it "Scripture". Now that, as I said, is a very interesting thing, if you think about it. 
7.56 The two uses, attributive and predicative, without the verb "to be", can be clearly seen in the following example, which is unambiguous: Revelation 20:5 (L7/B9): avaaramc T1 rpojTri this is the first resurrection 
7.57 Note the distinction between the two positions (that is, in the relationships of article and adjective): (a) In the attributive positions, the adjective is always immediately preceded by the article. 
(b) In the predicative positions, the adjective is never immediately preceded by the article. The meaning is thus always indicated quite clearly. 
7.58 There are however some sentences where the article is not used with adjective and noun. In these instances therefore there could be a potential ambiguity. However, usually the context makes the meaning plain. John 6:9 (L7/B10): Tarn/ gott6aprov cii6e bc 2(£1. 7rEVTE difyrovc Kpteivovc There is a lad here who has five barley loaves 
7.59 There are five common words which always take the predicative position (that is, they do not ever have the article immediately preceding them) but which nonetheless have the usual adjectival sense and do not necessarily imply the verb "to be". These are: oZToc ("this"), kiceivoc ("that"), o)Loc ("whole, complete, entire"), rag. ("all"), and dizac (alternative form of Iraq). Examples of their use: 
(a) In the Predicative Prior Position John 12:34 (L3/B1): ko-rtv aroc 6 viol Tof) aveparov; who is this son of man? 
Mark 12:30 (L5/B15): Kap6iac Gov (K-0,) out of your whole heart (etc.) Matthew 16:18 (L5/B18): eic i naves Trj 7thrpa obco8o,urjo-o) upon this rock I will build ... Matthew 28:19 (L6/B3): zavTa Tee all the nations ...
(b) In the Predicative Post Position Mark 10:5 (L5/B16): evT&Mv TonjTriv .. this commandment
Matthew 3:9 (L5/1317): ... klc nOiv AiBcov TatjToyv .. out of these stones

SEVEN: ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS; SECOND AND THIRD CONJUGATIONS 95 
7.6 SUPPLETIVES, AND OTHER VERBS OF THE SECOND AORIST 
7.61 A number of Greek verbs are incomplete, in that they cannot be used in all tenses, because in ome tenses the expected forms do not exist. These verbs are referred to as "defective" in those :mses. What happens in such cases is that forms from some quite different verbs fill the gaps. 
7.62 We have defective verbs in English, and we also fill the gaps from other verbs in a similar ay. Consider the following: "See how God has answered prayer in the past, and believe that he ill answer prayer in the future also; see what wonders God has wrought in the past, and believe :hat he will wonders in the future also." What is the future tense of "wrought" needed to fill :he gap? There is no such future tense in use, so we have to borrow from another verb, perhaps -do", or "work" or "perform". Similarly, what are the infinitives of "can" and "will"? We have to arrow from other verbs and say, "to be able to" and "to intend to" or "to be about to". English has -:ormed the tense system of some verbs from different roots: e.g., "go" is defective (it is not ,:ceptable to say "he goed"), and has taken as its past tense "went", which is actually the past tense :f the verb "wend". 
7.63 Verbs which join together forms from different roots in this way are called suppletives. There seven suppletives used in the New Testament: 
Meaning Present Active
take/choose come eat say/speak • see run
- carry/bring
aipeco pzoi.t at koVico t opdcw zpexo) OePw
Future Aorist Active Active f eA,eco eaov aiprj (royal eaa kA,E1)aoyal 112,61ov Odeyoitat q)ayov Epees EllrOV digoitat eh5ov 6pageop at) Spa,uov {r)veyK'ov} n'vEyica
Perfect Perfect Active MiddlPassive
airjA,v Oa
eiprjica tkcopawa (6e8p ditri Ica) Ev1j voxa
- \ote the rough breathing on these three forms: this is explained in #C8.73.
?1p at
eipri gat t(ectjpayat) (8e8p akin az) (kvilvEndaz)
Aorist Passive rj peerj v eppeOriv co(periv r)It(07-7v
7.64 In the New Testament both A,eyco and Orl,ui occur only in the present and imperfect, and On yi found only in these four forms: Present, 077 jai, "I say"; Ono-iv, "he says"; Oao- iv, "they say"; Imperfect, 47-7, "he said". (These four forms occur altogether 70 times in the New Testament, EOrj --,nrig by far the most common.) The gap for both verbs for other tenses is filled by Spew, ebrov, All these words, originally different verbs, have the same root meaning of "say/speak/tell", - are used to supplete each other. Similarly for the other suppletives. 
7.65 NOTE that all seven suppletives are Second Conjugation verbs (that is, they have second • rist forms, indicated by the -ov ending). Two verbs (aipeco and Oepco) are shown as having first • rist alternatives, and also throv and Et8ov can have forms in the New Testament with first aorist -dings (though without the -a- phoneme of the punctiliar morph; see #A3.28). In the New stament there are two alternative forms of the future used for aipeco and its compounds. 
7.66 For Second Conjugation verbs, their verb stem is their aorist stem, and (except for ayes and -,,o)) they add a durative morph to form their present stem. A fuller explanation of verb formation Ill be given in due course (#10.2), and all 34 Second Conjugation verbs which occur in the New - tament are listed in #C2. However, the 15 more frequent and more important of these should be ,ted now. The Principal Parts (see #10.3) for these are: 

96 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
Meaning Present Active lead ayw, sin auaptrawo throw f3a2.,Aco become yivoyat find EievialCCO have Exw die (daro)evrjakco take A.a,u)gava) leave Azigo) learn gaveavw suffer ircio-xco drink rives fall gim-co bear 211(11,0 flee 0a5yco
Future Active go) et,uap271(70) PaA,eco yevticopat ef)prio-o) -rco -19aveopat AMIligo,uat AE1111C0 ,uaerjo-o,uat gio,uat geaeopat Te0,Liat 0Eigogat
Aorist Perfect Active Active fiyayov (ixa) fipaptrov r'bucip-critca fficaov 02,771ca ey,evopriv yeyova evpov5pritca kxov eaxtitca -0avov Teevritca 0..a[3ov EUrNa avrov (A0,oura) ,uarSoov gegeo9ritca braeov gegovea 71.tov gerama IrEo-ov Irbrccoica -ZEICOV (2 e20X0) Ovyov geOevya
t Note the rough breathing on this form: this is explained in #E2.85.
Perfect Midd✓Passive n'ypat (reiktapvi,uat) 16ef32,1-7,uat yEyevriliat (efipn,uat)
eUrip,uat 2,0,Et,uktat (zerquat) (Te'rEyllat)
Aorist Passive fixer-iv (iiitaprilOriv) 462,40riv kyEvt-jOriv ei5peetiv
e2.4,u0Oriv OLeixperiv

The preposition ago is usually prefixed to Ovijo-icco. For the other words listed, a form in brackets is one which does not occur in the New Testament but is worthy of note. 
7.67 NOTE that where the stem of a word ends in a labial, the -K.- of the perfect active morph combines with this labial and gives -0- (as in eari0a), and similarly this - K- combines with a palatal at the end of the stem to give -x- (as in iza). Some perfects take the -a- ending direct, without the - K- phoneme — see #7.8, below. 
7.68 These patterns are not given for learning, but for you to look through so that you begin to become familiar with the kinds of changes that occur in a word. (When you encounter one of these forms, your Grammatical Analysis will remind you of the lexical form of that word.) 
7.69 Once the first person singular of a flexion (the flexion form) is known, the remaining forms of that flexion will all conjugate regularly, on the pattern of ),15w. 
7.7 THE THIRD AORIST, AND THE THIRD CONJUGATION 
7.71 THE FIRST AND SECOND AORISTS: So far we have met two ways of forming and conjugating the aorist active — adding the punctiliar morph -o-a-, and then conjugating as for co (#4.21) and, secondly, adding the neutral morph -E/o- and conjugating as for Ocaov (#3.81). 
7.72 THIRD AORIST ACTIVE: There is also a third aorist active pattern of conjugation, without any difference in meaning (#3.65). This pattern is followed by a small but important group of verbs: they add a third set of endings (slightly different from the other two) directly to the verb root, lengthening the final vowel of the root if it is short. Note that in this paradigm the 3rd person singular pronoun ending is 0 (zero), and that it is in fact the absence of any other ending that is what is significant for indicating the person and number of this form. 

SEVEN: ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS; SECOND AND THIRD CONJUGATIONS 97 
7.73 Lexical form: iarript (stand) -salvo) (go) ytv6o-tao (know) 8thico (sink) Root: am- -/3a- yvo- 8v-AORIST ACTIVE: Ending SINGULAR 1 -v &Tv-iv -437-iv yticov 8vv 2 -g 61-7-15 -0775 e,,YvwC 8vc-3 0 Aarri -On eyvw Mu PLURAL 1 -,LIEV &YTTIIIEV -Oripev Lyvcouev E6v,uev 2 -Te 6arritE -On TE eyvCOTE Mvt-E 3 -aav so--rrio-av -Orio-av yvcoaav Mvo-av 
o-Truit is one of the most complex of New Testament verbs, with one set of tenses having :ransitive meaning, "to cause [something] to stand", and another set of its tenses having intran-,itive meaning, "to take a stand". Fuller details are given in #C3.87.) 
7.74 THIRD AORIST MIDDLE: Most third aorist verbs do not use forms in the Middle Voice. Those that do take the same pronoun endings as the first aorist (2a5co) forms, but once again they _-1,1d them directly to the verb root. Thus kee,unv (from Tierhut), Moyriv (from &Scow). (For the 111 flexion, see #C6.) 
7.75 THIRD AORIST PASSIVE: In the Passive Voice third aorist verbs add the passive morph (which lengthens to -On-) directly to their root and then again take the same Third Con-ization endings as given above for the active (#7.73). It is to be noted that A:tjco (and all First and and Conjugation verbs) follow the Third Conjugation pattern in the passive (compare the of )ajco, #6.50, with the following Table). That is to say, all verbs are Third Conjugation n the Aorist Passive. 
NORIST PASSIVE: S1 karderiv -43deriv t eyvcoo-Oriv t-e(51/yr)v 2 karaOrig -06977c kyvcoo-Oric -e815rig 3 kal-den -06077 kyvcoo-Ori -e6i'yri P1 karderwev -060ruiEv kyvojaerywv -e8ijr-buev 2 kaTathirE -060ril-E eyv666riTE -kOtjriTE 3 kardcOncrav -066ncrav eyvojo-Oriaav -kotjrio-av
this flexion (and in the perfect middle/passive and the future passive) the lexal -rico- has the allomorph form =C8.91). is a direct flexion passive without -9- (see #7.8).
THIRD CONJUGATION: The third aorist is thus a third way of conjugating the aorist, It is. a Third Conjugation. Third Conjugation verbs form their present stem, like the Second by adding a durative morph to their verb stem. But -f3aivco, ytvcoo-Kco and 56vco have taken the First Conjugation ending -co, and they conjugate their present tense on a First --i'uzation pattern. However, verbs ending in -,ut (like io-7/11) follow a distinctive (that is to say, 7d Conjugation) pattern of conjugating their present and imperfect tenses.
- -7 THIRD CONJUGATION PRESENT: This conjugation (shown here for five representative -_ -..rbs) is:

98 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 

<table>
 <tr><th>Root:</th><td></td><td>στα- (stand)</td><td>δυνα- (can)</td><td>θε- (place)</td><td>δο- (give)</td><td>δεικ- (show)</td></tr>
 <tr><th>PRESENT ACTIVE</th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><th>SINGULAR</th><td>1</td><td>ἵστημι</td><td>(none -</td><td>τίθημι</td><td>δίδωμι</td><td>δείκνυμι</td></tr>
 <tr><th></th><td>2</td><td></td><td>deponent</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><th></th><td>3</td><td>ἵστησι(ν)</td><td>verb)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><th>PLURAL</th><td>1</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><th></th><td>2</td><td>ἵστατε</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><th></th><td>3</td><td>ἱστᾶσι(ν)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><th>PRESENT MIDDLE</th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><th>SINGULAR</th><td>1</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><th></th><td>2</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><th></th><td>3</td><td>ἵσταται</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><th>PLURAL</th><td>1</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><th></th><td>2</td><td>ἵστασθε</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><th></th><td>3</td><td>ἵστανται</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><th>IMPERFECT ACTIVE</th><td></td><td></td><td>-</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><th>IMPERFECT MIDDLE</th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
</table>

7.78 NOTE: (a) The pronoun endings of the Third Conjugation Present Middle are the same as those taken by the perfect of First Conjugation verbs (see λέλυμαι, #6.25), and the endings of the Third Conjugation Imperfect Middle are the same as those taken by the pluperfect of First Conjugation verbs (see #C1.12); (b) The Third Conjugation Imperfect Active takes the same endings as the Third Aorist Active (#7.73); (c) The Imperfect flexions are set out in full in #C6.3; (d) δύναμαι is deponent; its imperfect (usually ἐδυνάμην, but occurring seven times as ἠδυνάμην, with double augment — see #4.62), follows ἱστάμην; (e) Three other important Third Conjugation deponents are κάθημαι "I sit down", κεῖμαι "I lie down", and -ἵημι, "I send" (which conjugates like τίθημι, but only occurs in the New Testament in compounds, notably ἀφίημι); (f) For the present and imperfect passive: use middle forms (#6.50, #6.51). 
7.79 Many of the forms in the above flexions are never actually found in the New Testament, but are included to show clearly the pattern of conjugating. A fuller explanation of verb formation will be given in due course (#10.2), and all 36 Third Conjugation verbs which occur in the New Testament are listed in #C3. 
7.8 DIRECT FLEXIONS 
7.81 Some Greek verbs form one of their tenses without the use of the usual consonant in the aspect or voice morph. Two verbs form their future (deponent) without a future morph: φάγομαι (from ἐσθίω "I eat" — see #7.63); πίομαι (from πίνω "I drink" — see #C4.2). Nine verbs form their perfect active without either aspirating the stem consonant or adding -κ-, as the case may be; for example, γέγονα, from γίνομαι "I become" (see #C4.3 for the full list). Thirty verbs can form their aorist passive without taking the -θ- of the passive morph; for example, ἠγγέλην, not ἠγγέλθην, from ἀγγέλλω "I announce" (see #C4.4 for the full list). These flexions which add the next vowel directly to the lexal without the usual consonant of the morph can be termed "direct flexions". 
7.82 Among the direct flexions of the perfect, there is one which requires special comment: οἶδα, from the same root, ἰδ-, as εἶδον, "I saw". It is: 

SEVEN: ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS; SECOND AND THIRD CONJUGATIONS 99 

<table>
 <tr><td> </td><td> </td><th>Perfect</th><th>Pluperfect</th><th>Subjunctive</th><th>Imperative</th><th>Infinitive</th><th>Participle</th></tr>
 <tr><th>SINGULAR</th><th>1</th><td>οἶδα</td><td>ᾔδειν</td><td>εἰδῶ</td><td> </td><td>εἰδέναι</td><td><table><tr><td>m.</td><td>εἰδώς</td></tr></table></td></tr>
 <tr><th> </th><th>2</th><td>οἶδας</td><td>ᾔδεις</td><td>εἰδῇς</td><td>ἴσθι</td><td></td><td><table><tr><td>f.</td><td>εἰδυῖα</td></tr></table></td></tr>
 <tr><th> </th><th>3</th><td>οἶδε(ν)</td><td>ᾔδει</td><td>εἰδῇ</td><td>ἴστω</td><td></td><td><table><tr><td>n.</td><td>εἰδός</td></tr></table></td></tr>
 <tr><th>PLURAL</th><th>1</th><td>οἴδαμεν</td><td>ᾔδειμεν</td><td>εἰδῶμεν</td><td> </td><td></td><td><table><tr><td>g.</td><td>εἰδότος</td></tr></table></td></tr>
 <tr><th> </th><th>2</th><td>οἴδατε</td><td>ᾔδειτε</td><td>εἰδῆτε</td><td>ἴστε</td><td></td><td> </td></tr>
 <tr><th> </th><th>3</th><td>οἴδασι(ν)</td><td>ᾔδεισαν</td><td>εἰδῶσι(ν)</td><td>ἴστωσαν</td><td></td><td> </td></tr>
</table>

This perfect form has the present meaning, "I know", etc., and the pluperfect is the past tense, "I knew". 
7.83 Notice the second-last morph in the pluperfect flexion, -ει-. This identifies the form as pluperfect. Thus it is a specifier morph, and occupies Slot 8 of a verb's nine morph slots. NOTE that on to this specifier morph the pluperfect adds the endings (Slot 9) of the third aorist #7.73). 
7.84 Because the specifier morph -ει- identifies the pluperfect in an unambiguous way, some riters of koinē Greek considered an initial augment unnecessary for the pluperfect tense, and i\mitted it for many words in the pluperfect. 
7.85 A similar situation exists for another word: εἴωθα (which is as rare as οἶδα is common) is so a perfect form that has present meaning, "I am accustomed", and comes from an original present form (ἔθω) that has been obsolete since Homer's time. Again like οἶδα, it has a pluperfect form εἰώθειν (which follows the paradigm of ᾔδειν) that has simple past meaning, "I was accustomed". The neuter perfect participle εἰωθός occurs with the meaning "custom" (compare perfect participle εἰδώς from οἶδα). 
7.86 For the paradigm of λύω, showing the regular pluperfect flexion with the perfective active morph -κ-, see #C1.11. 
ASSIGNMENTS ON LESSON SEVEN 
1. PARADIGMS FOR LEARNING: The paradigms to be learnt by heart this Lesson are: 
    18. Third Conjugation Aorist Active (#7.73): ἔστην (from ἵστημι), and ἔγνων (from γινώσκω) 
    19. Third Conjugation Present Active (#7.77): ἵστημι and δίδωμι 
    20. Third Conjugation Present Middle (#7.77): ἵσταμαι and δίδομαι 
2(a) LEARNING THE OTHER MAJOR PARADIGMS OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION: Aim to understand how the other flexions of the Third Conjugation are formed: NOTE how the Third Conjugation Aorist Middle is formed by adding the regular aorist middle endings (as for λύω) to the verb root, while the Third Conjugation Aorist Passive flexion is formed from the verb root by adding the passive morph and then the third aorist endings.
(b) LEARN which are the seven verbs which are suppletives (#7.63), and NOTE the suppletive forms which are used in their other tenses: these are used in the Sentences (below). 
3. WORKBOOK: ANSWER THE QUESTIONS in your Workbook about this Lesson. 

100 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
4. TRANSLATION EXERCISES A AND B: Do the English into Greek exercises, and then read and translate literally all the Selections from the Greek New Testament. Make sure that you continue the pattern of reading each Selection aloud before translating it, to help cultivate your "feel" for the Greek. NOTE: To do this work you will need to use the paradigms set for learning this Lesson, together with the paradigms and vocabulary of the previous Lessons. The new prepositions given below, and the cases they take, should be carefully noted. Most of the Selections introduce new vocabulary which is then used again in the Selections which follow. LEARN each unknown word as you use it. 
5. VOCABULARY CARDS: Continue the practice of writing out Vocabulary Cards for the new words introduced in this Lesson, putting 7 (for "Lesson 7") in the top lefthand corner of each side of the Card. Make out the card for each new word as you come to it in the Sentences below; some will appear in several of this Lesson's Sentences. When you are given a word form and what it comes from, put the word it comes from at the top of your Card, and the information about that word form lower on the Card. Add these Cards to your collection, and place them all in alphabetical order. When additional information is provided about a word which you have had in a previous Lesson, add that information to your existing Vocabulary Card for that word. (Don't forget to put on your Card the case(s) taken by each preposition.) 
6. ABBREVIATIONS IN THE NOTES (BELOW): see page 12. 
PREPOSITIONS

<table>
 <tr><td>*σύν</td><td>(+dat)</td><td>with, together with</td><td>   </td><td>χωρίς</td><td>(+gen)</td><td>without, apart from</td></tr>
</table>


A. TRANSLATION FROM ENGLISH INTO GREEK 
(This may be done as an exercise in class at the end of the Lesson, or set as an assignment.) 

<table>
 <tr><td></td><th>SENTENCES</th><th>NOTES AND NEW WORDS</th></tr>
 <tr><td>A1.</td><td>"I do not know this man." (MARK 14:71)</td><td>Use *οἶδα, "I know" (#7.82)</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A2.</td><td>It has been written, "You (plural) shall be holy, because I (emphatic) [am] holy. (1 PETER 1:16)</td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><td>A3.</td><td>Night is coming, when no-one is able to work.</td><td>I am able: *δύναμαι; (JOHN 9:4) work: ἐργάζομαι (dep.)</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A4.</td><td>Do you not know that you are God's temple and the Spirit of God dwells in you? (1 CORINTHIANS 3:16)</td><td>temple: ναός, -οῦ, ὁ; dwell: οἰκέω</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A5.</td><td>The workman [is] worthy of his pay. (LUKE 10:7)</td><td>workman: ἐργάτης, -ου, ὁ; pay: μισθός, -ου, ὁ </td></tr>
 <tr><td>A6.</td><td>I wrote these things to you in order that you might know that you have eternal life. (1 JOHN 5:13)</td><td>in order that: *ἵνα (+ subjv); might know: see #7.82</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A7.</td><td>I have not come to call righteous ones but sinners into repentance. (LUKE 5:32)</td><td>righteous: *δίκαιος, -αία, -ον; sinner, sinful: ἁμαρτωλός, -όν</td></tr>
</table>


SEVEN: ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS; SECOND AND THIRD CONJUGATIONS 101 
B. SELECTIONS FROM THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
A superscript number (as in aor²) is used to indicate a Second or Third Conjugation verb (as the case may be). 

<table>
 <tr><td></td><th>SELECTION</th><th>NOTES AND NEW WORDS</th></tr>
 <tr><td>B1.</td><td>καὶ ... εἰσῆλθον εἰς τὴν ἁγίαν πόλιν, καὶ ἐνεφανίσθησαν πολλοῖς. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 27:53)</td><td>ἐν-ε-φανίσ-θη-σαν: 3pl aor. pass. from ἐμφανίζω, cause to appear clearly, make known, (pass.: appear)</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B2.</td><td>Καὶ τῷ ἀγγέλῳ τῆς ἐν Λαοδικείᾳ ἐκκλησίας γράψον, Τάδε λέγει ὁ Ἀμήν, ὁ μάρτυς ὁ πιστὸς καὶ ἀληθινός, ἡ ἀρχὴ τῆς κτίσεως τοῦ θεοῦ· Οἶδά σου τὰ ἔργα. (ΑΠΟΚΑΛΥΨΙΣ ΙΩΑΝΝΟΥ 3:14-15)</td><td>Λαοδίκεια, -ας, Laodicea; *ἐκκλησία, ἡ: church; τάδε: #7.14; *ἀμήν: amen; ὁ Ἀμήν: the one who is true; μάρτυς, -υρος, ὁ: witness, martyr; *ἀρχή, ruler, beginning (both meanings apply here); *οἶδα: know, #7.82</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B3.</td><td>Καὶ τὴν πόλιν τὴν ἁγίαν, Ἱερουσαλὴμ καινήν, εἶδον καταβαίνουσαν ἐκ τοῦ οὐρανοῦ ἀπὸ τοῦ θεοῦ, ἡτοιμασμένην ὡς νύμφην κεκοσμημένην τῷ ἀνδρὶ αὐτῆς. (ΑΠΟΚΑΛΥΨΙΣ ΙΩΑΝΝΟΥ 21:2)</td><td>Ἰερουσαλήμ, ἡ (indecl.): Jerusalem; καινός -ή -όν: new; *εἶδον: #7.63; *καταβαίνω: come down (acc. sg fem. ptc, agreeing with πόλις); ἡτοιμασμένην: having been prepared (perf ptc); νύμφη, -ης, ἡ: bride; κεκοσμημένην: having been adorned (acc sg fern pf ptc); *ἀνήρ, ἀνδρός, ὁ: husband, man (see #5.44)</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B4.</td><td>ὧν οὐκ ἦν ἄξιος ὁ κόσμος (ΠΡΟΣ ΕΒΡΑΙΟΥΣ 11:38)</td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><td>B5.</td><td>ὁ γὰρ ναὸς τοῦ θεοῦ ἅγιός ἐστιν, οἵτινές ἐστε ὑμεῖς. (ΠΡΟΣ ΚΟΡΙΝΘΙΟΥΣ Α, 3:17)</td><td>οἵτινες: #7.15; see #D6.1 and #D6.6</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B6.</td><td>Ὅτι ἐποίησέν μοι μεγαλεῖα ὁ δυνατός, καὶ ἅγιον τὸ ὄνομα αὐτοῦ. (ΚΑΤΑ ΛΟΥΚΑΝ 1:49)</td><td>μεγαλεῖα: #5.75; ὁ δυνατός: the Almighty; Absence of verb "to be": #7.54(e)</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B7.</td><td>Λέγει γὰρ ἡ γραφή, Βοῦν ἀλοῶντα οὐ φιμώσεις· καί, Ἄξιος ὁ ἐργάτης τοῦ μισθοῦ αὐτοῦ. (ΠΡΟΣ ΤΙΜΟΘΕΟΝ Α, 5:18)</td><td>*γραφή, -ῆς, ἡ: scripture; βοῦς, βοός, ὁ: ox, #5.20; ἀλοῶντα: masc. acc. sg ptc from ἀλοάω, thresh; φιμόω: muzzle</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B8.</td><td>ὁ μὲν νόμος ἅγιος, καὶ ἡ ἐντολὴ ἁγία καὶ δικαία καὶ ἀγαθή. Τὸ οὖν ἀγαθὸν ἐμοὶ γέγονεν θάνατος; (ΠΡΟΣ ΡΩΜΑΙΟΥΣ 7:12-13)</td><td>*ἐντολή, commandment, instruction; *ἀγαθός -ή -όν: good</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B9.</td><td>Καὶ οἱ λοιποὶ τῶν νεκρῶν οὐκ ἔζησαν ἄχρι τελεσθῇ τὰ χίλια ἔτη. Αὕτη ἡ ἀνάστασις ἡ πρώτη. Μακάριος καὶ ἅγιος ὁ ἔχων μέρος ἐν τῇ ἀναστάσει τῇ πρώτῃ· (ΑΠΟΚΑΛΥΨΙΣ ΙΩΑΝΝΟΥ 20:5-6)</td><td>*λοιπός -ή -όν: remainder, remaining, rest; *ζάω: live; ἄχρι: until; τελεσθῇ: 3sg aor. pass. subjv of τελέω, end, complete, finish; χίλιοι -αι -α: thousand; ἔτος, -ους, τό: year</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B10.</td><td>Ἔστιν παιδάριον ἓν ὧδε, ὃ ἔχει πέντε ἄρτους κριθίνους καὶ δύο ὀψάρια· ἀλλὰ ταῦτα τί ἐστιν εἰς τοσούτους; (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 6:9)</td><td>παιδάριον, -ου, τό: a lad, young boy; πέντε: five; κρίθινος, -η, -ον: barley, made of barley; ὀψάριον, -ου, τό: a (small) fish; τοσοῦτος, -αύτη, -οῦτο(ν): so much/ so many, #7.13</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B11.</td><td>Μακάριοι οἱ καθαροὶ τῇ καρδίᾳ· ὅτι αὐτοὶ τὸν θεὸν ὄψονται. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 5:8)</td><td>καθαρός: clean, pure; ὄψονται: #7.63</td></tr>
</table>

102 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 

<table>
 <tr><td>B12.</td><td>Καὶ λέγουσιν αὐτῷ οἱ μαθηταὶ αὐτοῦ, Πόθεν ἡμῖν ἐν ἐρημίᾳ ἄρτοι τοσοῦτοι, ὥστε χορτάσαι ὄχλον τοσοῦτον; (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 15:33)</td><td>τοσοῦτος #7.13; χορτάζω: feed, satisfy with food; *ὄχλος, -ου, ὁ: (a) crowd</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B13.</td><td>Ὅστις δὲ ὑψώσει ἑαυτόν, ταπεινωθήσεται· καὶ ὅστις ταπεινώσει ἑαυτόν, ὑψωθήσεται. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 23:12)</td><td>*ὅστις: #7.15; ὑψόω: exalt; *ἑαυτόν: #6.93: ταπεινόω: humble</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B14.</td><td>Ἐγὼ ἐλήλυθα ἐν τῷ ὀνόματι τοῦ πατρός μου , καὶ οὐ λαμβάνετέ με · ἐὰν ἄλλος ἔλθῃ ἐν τῷ ὀνόματι τῷ ἰδίῳ , ἐκεῖνον λήψεσθε (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 5:43)</td><td>kA4AvOa: #7.63; 0,643: 3sg aor2 subjv of *rfriBov, were to come; *i8ioc, -a, -ov: one's own, his own; ev ovopaTt i(51(p: #7.51(b); A411111E69E: 2p1 fut. (#7.66) from *A.a,ufkivo), receive</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B15.</td><td>ἀλλὰ λέγει αὐτῷ, Ὕπαγε εἰς τὸν οἶκόν σου πρὸς τοὺς σούς, καὶ ἀνάγγειλον αὐτοῖς ὅσα σοι ὁ κύριος πεποίηκεν, καὶ ἠλέησέν σε. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΡΚΟΝ 5:19-20)</td><td>0-01');: from o-óc, -rj, -6v, L2/B25; with the article: the ones who are yours (i.e., your family and friends); durayyEtADv: impv aor' of c'urayyeaco, liquid verb (#4.57); am: #7.11, neut pl., how many things, i.e., all that ...; 3sg aor. from kAzaco, have mercy, compassion (note the significance of the aor. here and perf of Iroteo), both referring to the one act)</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B16.</td><td>Καὶ τοιαύταις παραβολαῖς πολλαῖς ἐλάλει αὐτοῖς τὸν λόγον, καθὼς ἠδύναντο ἀκούειν· χωρὶς δὲ παραβολῆς οὐκ ἐλάλει αὐτοῖς· κατ’ ἰδίαν δὲ τοῖς μαθηταῖς αὐτοῦ ἐπέλυεν πάντα. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΡΚΟΝ 4:33-34)</td><td>*Totof)w; rota6T77, Totarov. of such a kind, #7.13; *KapaPo2M, -fic, 4: parable; 7)81jvavro: 3pl impf dep. of the Third Conjugation *513valuat, #7.78, note the double augment (#4.62); dcutjetv: here: understand; Kat' i8lay: on their own, privately (from *i6iog); brt2,1")co: explain</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B17.</td><td>Καὶ συνάγονται οἱ ἀπόστολοι πρὸς τὸν Ἰησοῦν, καὶ ἀπήγγειλαν αὐτῷ πάντα, καὶ ὅσα ἐποίησαν καὶ ὅσα ἐδίδαξαν. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΡΚΟΝ 6:30)</td><td>*avvayco: gather together (mid/pass., come together, meet); *durouToZoc-, -ov, 6: apostle; oo-a: #7.11; k8164ay: 3p1 aor. of *St8(itax-co, teach</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B18.</td><td>Ἀλλὰ λέγω ὑμῖν ὅτι καὶ Ἠλίας ἐλήλυθεν, καὶ ἐποίησαν αὐτῷ ὅσα ἠθέλησαν, καθὼς γέγραπται ἐπ’ αὐτόν. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΡΚΟΝ 9:13)</td><td>kill-M.7)9El'; #7.63; oo-a: #7.11; fi9EADv: 3pl impf from *Oato, with double augment (#4.62); yeypaIrrat: 3sg pf pass. from *ypotOw (#6.25, #6.50, #10.45)</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B19.</td><td>Εἶπεν δὲ πρὸς τοὺς μαθητάς, Ἐλεύσονται ἡμέραι ὅτε ἐπιθυμήσετε μίαν τῶν ἡμερῶν τοῦ υἱοῦ τοῦ ἀνθρώπου ἰδεῖν, καὶ οὐκ ὄψεσθε. (ΚΑΤΑ ΛΟΥΚΑΝ 17:22)</td><td>Oi-eljo-ovrat: #7.63; hrteviieco: strongly desire, long (for); play: #5.76; 1(5Efy: aor2 inf. (#4.48, #7.63); 61yea9E: #7.63</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B20.</td><td>Καὶ ἐμαρτύρησεν Ἰωάννης λέγων ὅτι Τεθέαμαι τὸ πνεῦμα καταβαῖνον ὡς περιστερὰν ἐξ οὐρανοῦ, καὶ ἔμεινεν ἐπ’ αὐτόν. Κἀγὼ οὐκ ᾔδειν αὐτόν· ἀλλ’ ὁ πέμψας με βαπτίζειν ἐν ὕδατι, ἐκεῖνός μοι εἶπεν, Ἐφ’ ὃν ἂν ἴδῃς τὸ πνεῦμα καταβαῖνον καὶ μένον ἐπ’ αὐτόν, οὗτός ἐστιν ὁ βαπτίζων ἐν πνεύματι ἁγίῳ. Κἀγὼ ἑώρακα, καὶ μεμαρτύρηκα ὅτι οὗτός ἐστιν ὁ υἱὸς τοῦ θεοῦ. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 1:32-34)</td><td>*papTypeco: testify, bear witness; -reeleaRat: lsg pf of Oedeopat (dep.), look at, notice, observe (re reduplication, see #E4.33); 7repurrepet, ag, rj: dove, pigeon; 1.1E1VEV: 3sg aor of *pew°, rest, remain, abide; 756etv. #7.82; 6 ,reytifac-; masc. nom. sg ptc (meaning, the one who sent), from *7repirco, send; Yorig: 2sg aor2 subjv, from *th5ov (#7.63); kcopaKa: #7.63</td></tr>
</table>

SEVEN: ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS; SECOND AND THIRD CONJUGATIONS 103 

<table>
 <tr><td>B21.</td><td>Λέγει ἡ μήτηρ αὐτοῦ τοῖς διακόνοις, Ὅ τι ἂν λέγῃ ὑμῖν, ποιήσατε. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 2.5)</td><td>διάκονος, -ου, ὁ and ἡ: servant, deacon; ὅ τι: neut. from *ὅστις, #7.15</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B22.</td><td>Οἱ πατέρες ἡμῶν τὸ μάννα ἔφαγον ἐν τῇ ἐρήμῳ, καθώς ἐστιν γεγραμμένον, Ἄρτον ἐκ τοῦ οὐρανοῦ ἔδωκεν αὐτοῖς φαγεῖν. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 6:31)</td><td>μάννα, τό (indecl.): manna; ἔφαγον: #7.63; γεγραμμένον: pf middlpass. ptc from *γράφω; with ἐστιν: it stands written; ἔ-δω-κ-εν 3sg aor³ in -κα (#E4.77), from *δίδωμι, φαγεῖν: aor² inf., #7.63</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B23.</td><td>Ὅτι ἐγὼ ἐξ ἐμαυτοῦ οὐκ ἐλάλησα· ἀλλ’ ὁ πέμψας με πατήρ, αὐτός μοι ἐντολὴν ἔδωκεν, τί εἴπω καὶ τί λαλήσω. Καὶ οἶδα ὅτι ἡ ἐντολὴ αὐτοῦ ζωὴ αἰώνιός ἐστιν· ἃ οὖν λαλῶ ἐγώ, καθὼς εἴρηκέν μοι ὁ πατήρ, οὕτως λαλῶ. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 12:49-50)</td><td>ἐμαυτοῦ: #6.93; ὁ πέμψας: see L7/B20; ἔ-δω-κ-εν: 3sg aor³ of *δίδωμι; *οἶδα: #7.82; εἴρηκεν: #7.63</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B24.</td><td>Καὶ ὤφθη αὐτοῖς Ἠλίας σὺν Μωσῇ, καὶ ἦσαν συλλαλοῦντες τῷ Ἰησοῦ. Καὶ ἀποκριθεὶς ὁ Πέτρος λέγει τῷ Ἰησοῦ, Ῥαββί, καλόν ἐστιν ἡμᾶς ὧδε εἶναι· καὶ ποιήσωμεν σκηνὰς τρεῖς, σοὶ μίαν, καὶ Μωσῇ μίαν, καὶ Ἠλίᾳ μίαν. Οὐ γὰρ ᾔδει τί λαλήσει· ἦσαν γὰρ ἔκφοβοι. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΡΚΟΝ 9:4-6)</td><td>ὤφθη: #7.63 [pass. means, (he) appeared]; συλλαλέω: converse, speak together; ἀποκριθείς masc nom sg pass ptc of *ἀποκρίνομαι (dep.), answer, respond; ᾔδει: #7.82; ἀποκριθῇ: 3sg aor. pass subjv; ἔκφοβος -ον: frightened, terrified</td></tr>
</table>

SUPPLEMENTARY PASSAGES IN THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 

<table>
 <tr><td>B25. JOHN 4:39-45</td><td></td><td>Do the translation of this passage from your Greek New Testament as an exercise in class, using your Grammatical Analysis.</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B26. MATTHEW 18:3-5 B27. MARK 10:10-16 B28. JOHN 1:6-13</td><td style="width:3px; line-height: 105%;">⎧ ⎨ ⎩ </td><td>Translate these passages from your Greek New Testament, making the fullest use of your Grammatical Analysis.</td></tr>
</table>

If Time permits, read a Commentary on the Greek text of Selections B25—B28.

</div>

<div id="A0" class="Lesson">
 APPENDIX A 
A STUDENT'S GUIDE TO THE USE OF THIS BOOK 
AO. SOME GENERAL EXPLANATIONS AND COMMENTS 
A0.1 APPENDIX PURPOSE 
A0.11 This Appendix aims to provide additional material which may prove helpful for those who are studying on their own. Those who are part of a Greek class will also find it useful to have these further explanations and comments about some of the points being made in the main Lessons. 
A0.12 These additional comments relate to Lessons One to Six. The comments on each Lesson should be read in conjunction with that Lesson, and the indicated Grammar learnt. 
A0.13 In general, material of continuing reference value is given in the Lessons, whilst this Appendix contains additional explanatory material and comments which once noted will probably not need to be referred to again. 
A0.14 Because of individual differences between all of us, the rate at which you personally will progress, and your speed and understanding and retentivity, will be different from that of others. However, it will help you to attain the maximum of which you are capable in these areas if you note some positive and negative factors that will affect language learning. 
A0.15 Eugene Nida, in writing Learning A Foreign Language — A Handbook For Missionaries, begins on page 1 to analyse why missionaries find they have great difficulties in learning a language, and his comments will apply equally well to your learning New Testament Greek. He says: 
"There is no valid reason for tragic failure in language learning, for languages can be learned. Children of six years of age in all cultures are able to speak their mother-tongue intelligibly and to discuss many things which missionaries seem never able to talk about. Naturally, we may then ask ourselves, 'Why do we not learn a language as well as a child?' The reasons for our deficiencies are not difficult to discover. In the first place, as adult missionaries we have already acquired a set of language habits, and we have practised them for fully twenty years, until they have become thoroughly a part of us. In the second place, we shelter our ego with all types of inhibitions and restraints. We are afraid of exposing our ignorance and of being laughed at, and as a result our speech becomes ridiculous. Of course, it is also true that we do not have native parents who fondly try to teach us, who never seem to tire of repeating words, and who praise us for our feeble efforts. Furthermore, we are not exposed to the taunting of other children who cruelly force conformity upon their playmates. In reality, we do not have many of the advantages afforded children."
A0.16 F. L. Billows (The Techniques of Language Teaching, page 38) makes a comment on rather similar lines: "Opinionated, over-confident people have not the flexibility of mind to learn languages easily." The extent to which we can put aside our inhibitions and self-consciousness, and risk making ridiculous mistakes and take them in our stride, is the extent to which we will make good progress in language learning. 
A0.17 And Nida adds three other comments which are relevant: "On the other hand, we have other advantages which come from analytical training and mature mental faculties." (p.2.) "Lack of time is the most common reason for failure in language learning." (p.8.) "Some of the failure to learn a language results from the wrong approach." (p.9.) 
167

168 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
A0.18 From what Nida and Billows have said, one can draw the observation, regarding partici-pation and learning in class: "The smaller the pride, the greater the progress: I will learn lots of Greek from participation in class — unless my pride and dignity get in the way." A0.19 On page 26, Nida stresses that "Language learning means language using". We can see then that a second major principle in the learning of Greek is, in effect, "Use it, or lose it". 
A0.2 THE PHILOSOPHY OF "FRAMEWORK" LEARNING 
A0.21 The major problem for many students in a language Course like this is one of attitude and expectation. They expect to be able to memorize and master everything they are told the first time they are told it. This is the approach to learning which has been customary in other subjects they have studied, and so they come to Greek with the intention of mastering it in the same way. They believe this is what is expected of them. Then they find that the material is presented to them faster than they can absorb it, and that they are becoming overwhelmed by an avalanche of information which they cannot fully keep up with. 
A0.22 If you are able to assimilate thoroughly everything in the lessons as they are presented, this is excellent; but it is also exceptional. You are not expected to master all the contents of a Lesson when you go through it. 
A0.23 What is happening during this Stage One (Beginner's) Course is that you are being introduced swiftly and systematically to the entire range of Greek grammar that is needed for beginning to read and understand the New Testament. The more fundamental paradigms and constructions are set for learning; the rest are provided at this stage as information. What you are asked to do is to become aware of them without necessarily learning them (for example, to know that there is such a thing as the perfect tense without necessarily memorizing the whole flexion). Then, when these words and forms are encountered in New Testament sentences, you will begin to get practice in recognizing them, and your teacher (if you are a member of a class) will explain the forms and their use, in the contexts in which they are actually used in the New Testament — and you will be able to follow and to understand the explanation. 
A0.24 This does not mean that you are now being told not to try too hard to learn your work. Not at all. But it does mean that you are not being asked to do all your learning on your own account, by rote, in isolation from actual use situations: you are being asked to become aware of the total framework of work to be learnt, and then progressively to flesh out that skeleton with knowledge and understanding as you gain experience with actual sentences from the Greek New Testament. 
A0.25 Your learning acquisition is thus to be a steady progress on a broad base, so that you are gradually developing an increasing awareness of the way in which Greek words and forms and constructions are actually used, from encountering them in use. 
A0.26 For most people this is a completely new approach to learning a subject, though it is in fact akin to how you progressively learnt your own mother tongue in the first place. 
A0.27 This all means that you should indeed learn as much as you can by means of each of the learning opportunities (as set out below), concentrating particularly upon those sections of a Lesson that are indicated as most important: but you should not be dismayed or even surprised when you are taken on to a new Lesson before you have fully grasped the last one. You should proceed at your own pace (that is, irrespective of whether others are ahead of you or behind)

APPENDIX A: A STUDENT'S GUIDE TO THE USE OF THIS BOOK 169 
without being concerned that your pace is not faster. Be content to build your knowledge of Greek gradually; do not be discouraged if you do not remember everything at the first or second hearing: you are not expected to. Your knowledge of the different aspects of Greek will fill out as you are exposed to more and more of the language in extracts from the New Testament during Stage One (the Beginner's Course) and, in Stage Two (the Intermediate Course), in progressing through 1 John, Mark or John (or some other New Testament book) and in working through Appendices C, D, and E. 
A0.28 The points of grammar which have been made in each Lesson, and that do need to be noted, are covered in the Workbook which accompanies this book. Be sure to make the fullest use of the help this Workbook can provide. 
A0.3 LEARNING OPPORTUNITIES 
A0.30 For those who are part of a class (there will be comments for students studying privately in #A0.4) there are several "learning points" for each Lesson which provide "learning opportunities" that will contribute cumulatively to the growth of your knowledge of Greek: 
A0.31 Student's Preliminary Reading of the Lesson: If you are able to do so, it is always helpful to do a quick preliminary reading of each Lesson before coming to the Session of your class where it will be introduced. This will provide you with a sense of direction — an awareness, in a general way, of the work that is to be tackled next, and an overview of that work. This quick Preliminary Reading enables you to see the whole of the next work unit in its totality, to get an idea of its scope, and thus to prepare yourself for its presentation in detail. It is something akin to looking at a roadmap of where you are going before you commence a journey. 
A0.32 The Introduction of the Lesson by the Teacher: The teacher introduces the grammar content of each new Lesson in its turn, going through each section and explaining it, giving drills in the new paradigms, and discussing any questions raised by the class. This provides you with the opportunity of becoming familiar with the new material, seeing its interrelationships, and gaining an initial understanding of its use. 
A0.33 Specific Memorization: In each Lesson, two or three Greek paradigms or flexions (or other material) are set for memorization. A specific effort is now to be made by the student to memorize this particular material. 
A0.34 Second Reading by the Student, and Workbook Exercises: The Workbook Practice Sheets and Exercises focus attention on the various issues covered in each Lesson. You are then to find those answers not known to you by looking through the Lesson material, which will require a second reading of whatever was not remembered. This will serve to consolidate your overall understanding of the Lesson. 
A0.35 Sentence Translation: Next, you are to put the work of the Lesson to immediate use in the translation of a number of sentences from English into Greek, and of selections from the Greek New Testament, which utilize the grammatical content of the Lesson. The aim of your translation from the New Testament is to reflect an understanding of the meaning of the Greek text, and therefore it must be as literal as it can be (a full explanation of the approach to your translation will be given in #A2.4). In seeking to understand the meaning of the Greek, you will need to use the paradigms you have learnt and to refer back frequently to the grammatical content of the Lesson, and to make use of other aids available such as your Vocabulary Cards. This point in your work,
170 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
at which you make use of the Lesson material in gaining an understanding of a New Testament sentence, is a major learning opportunity: seek therefore to gain an adequate grasp of the grammar that is needed to understand the sentence, and of how the sentence uses that grammar to express its meaning. There will be words, expressions, or constructions, that you cannot readily decipher: do not spend time on these (see #A2.6) but make a note of the problem for classroom discussion. 
A0.36 Revision and Recapitulation: Your next Classroom Session will commence with a brief recapitulation of the previous Lesson, together with drills in that Lesson's flexions (or the most important ones, at least). Use this as a check on your overall understanding of that Lesson and of your work in memorizing the set flexions, and in your general understanding of the other flexions and your ability to recognize forms from them. 
A0.37 Classroom Consideration of Sentences: After the recapitulation and drills, the class will consider in detail the Greek sentences given in the set Assignments. Take every opportunity to translate a sentence in class and to have it commented upon. Note differences between how you have rendered each of the sentences and the renderings of other members of the class, and ask questions about all the points that are not clear to you. It is important for the learning process that you should come to the point where you can understand the explanations that are given, and the form and meaning of the words in the sentences. 
A0.38 Review and Reference Back: In the work on subsequent Lessons, matters will arise which require you to refer back to points of grammar in earlier Lessons. Use these references back to earlier material as an opportunity to review and consolidate your knowledge of that work. Additionally, use any break between the conclusion of your Stage One (Beginner's) Course and the commencement of Stage Two (the Intermediate Course) to work through all the Lessons again, in sequence. You will find that the Greek sentences will now be considerably easier, and that many matters not quite clear when you went through the book the first time will have now fallen into place, and you will be able to have a much better "feel" for the overall functioning of Greek. In your Review of Stage One in this way, attempt to translate the sentences accurately at sight, without writing down a translation. The greater the extent to which you can do this, the better the extent to which you have grasped your work. But however well (or badly) you fare in this Review, the next stage in your learning, studying a Gospel in Greek, will help you progress further. 
A0.4 SELF STUDY SUGGESTIONS 
A0.41 If you are not a member of a Greek class, why not form a class of your own to work with you? In your church or Christian fellowship or circle of friends, there are sure to be several people who would like to learn to read the Greek New Testament, given the opportunity and a little encouragement. You can provide both of these. Gather together those interested, and plan a suitable meeting time and place. Read through the Basic Principles For Teachers (Appendix B) and you can teach yourselves, even though none of you has done Greek before. Amongst the many advantages of working together in this way: you can give help and encouragement to each other in the work; you can verify each other's pronunciations of the Greek; one member of a group will often spot an error that another has made and not noticed; you can test each other's memorizing of the paradigms and flexions; a co-operative attack on the translation of the Greek sentences will produce better results than if you are working alone; often a small group working together will persevere with the Course through the hard and the tedious parts where a lone student will be tempted to give up; and so on. 

APPENDIX A: A STUDENT'S GUIDE TO THE USE OF THIS BOOK 171 
A0.42 A small group working together can provide an environment for learning that is not far below that of a formal class. While taking the study of Greek seriously, a group can have fun and fellowship together. Laughter is a tremendous learning environment. A0.43 If joining a class or forming your own group are both out of the question, you can certainly do this Course successfully on your own. But you need to realize that to do this is more difficult, and that you will have to accept the discipline of putting time aside for Greek on a regular basis a few days every week, and keeping that time sacrosanct — or there will always be something "more important" that will arise and claim it. Make it your aim to progress through this book at the fastest rate you can, and follow as far as possible in your personal study all the guidelines for classroom situations that are given in this Appendix and Appendix B — adapt these according to circumstances and apply them to your own situation. 
A0.44 There will of course be problems you encounter where you (or your group) will need to consult someone with a greater knowledge of Greek. A minister or some other person who has studied Greek may be your answer here. Alternatively, you yourself may be that person at a later stage of your own Course — you yourself will then have a greater knowledge of Greek, and you will find that many of your earlier problems simply resolve themselves. 
<hr>
</div>

<div id="A1" class="Lesson">
A1. LESSON ONE 
A1.1 LESSON GOAL This Lesson has a threefold goal: 
A1.11 To become fluent in reading the Greek letters accurately. This includes learning the alphabet. The graduated pronunciation exercises which follow will introduce you to the alphabet. A1.12 To begin writing the Greek letters correctly. A1.13 To become familiar with Greek punctuation. A1.14 To learn about Greek words, including learning the flexion of the verb "to be", and doing some simple translation from Greek into English and vice versa. 
A1.2 LETTERS SIMILAR TO ENGLISH IN APPEARANCE AND PRONUNCIATION 
A1.21 Almost half the letters of the Greek alphabet — ten out of the twenty-four — are sufficiently close to their English counterparts for them to be readily recognizable. Nine of the ten can also be pronounced similarly to English (the tenth, υ, will be discussed a little later, in #A1.37). 
A1.22 These ten similar letters are: α β γ δ ε ι κ ο ς τ and υ. Their English equivalents are: a b d e i k o s t and u. 
A1.23 There is no dot over the Greek ι. 
A1.24 The α can be pronounced as short, as in "along", or long, as in "father", but it is NOT pronounced with the English "a" sounds as in "cat" or "name". 
A1.25 The ι can be pronounced as short, as in "in", or long, as in "ski", "kiosk", and "machine", but it is NOT pronounced with the English "i" sound as in "find".
172 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
A1.26 When pronouncing a Greek word at this stage, make α and ι short unless it "feels" better to you to pronounce them long.
A1.27 BUT: ε can only be short, as in "penguin", and ο can only be short, as in "got".
A1.28 NOTE: In the following pronunciation exercises, many words start with a smooth or rough breathing. Make sure you say them correctly! 
A1.29 The following forty-nine Greek words use only these letters (not including υ). Practise reading them out aloud several times, being particularly careful to pronounce the vowels correctly, as in the key words "along", "father", "in", "ski", "penguin", and "got". Ἀββᾶ, βία, δέκα, διά, κατά, κακός, τάς, βάτος, βίος, διαβάς, καταβάς, δέ, δίς, δοκός, δέος, ἴδε, τε, ἐκ, ἔτι, τίς, ἔτεκες, ἔκδικος, ἔτικτον, ἴδιος, ἀδικία, διότι, κακία, ἄκακος, ἄδικος, κόκκος, ἔκδοτος, ὁ, ὅς, ὅτι, ὅτε, ὅδε, τότε, τόδε, ἐᾶτε, ἔτος, ὁδός, ἐδίδετο, ἐκτός, ἕκτος, δεκτός, τακτός, ἄτακτος, διδακτός, διδακτικός 
A1.3 LETTERS SIMILAR IN APPEARANCE BUT DIFFERENT FROM ENGLISH 
A1.30 Six Greek letters look something like English letters but are in fact quite different — and so they need to be carefully noted. Practise reading the words containing these letters. Take care to pronounce each letter separately: there are no pairs of vowels here that are pronounced together as one sound (a diphthong). 
A1.31 γ not "y", but "g" as in "got". 
γέ, ἄγε, ἅγιος, ἁγία, κατάγαγε, διαταγάς, ὄγδοος, ἀγάγετε 
A1.32 η is not "n", but long "e", pronounced as in "there" and "where". 
ἤ, ἥ, γῆ, δή, βοή, δίκη, γόης, ἀκοή, ἥδε, δεκάτη, διετής, ἀκήκοα 
A1.33 ν is not "v", but "n" as in "in". 
ἐν, ἕν, ἦν, ἀνά, ἵνα, ὅταν, ναός, τέκνον, γένος, ἤγαγον, ἱκανός; διάκονος, ἐγένετο, ἁγνήν
A1.34 ρ is not "p", but "r" as in "throw" or "rope". 
ἀγρός, ἀγορά, ὄρος, ἕτερος, τρίτος, νεκρός, κρίνετε, γάρ, ἄρτος, καρδία, ἔργον, κέρδος, ὄρνις 
A1.35 χ is not "x", but "ch" (sometimes written "kh") — this sound is not used in standard English, but it occurs in Scottish "loch", and German "Bach" (the name of the composer), and it is also found in Hebrew and numbers of other languages. You make this sound by forming your mouth as if you are going to say "k", almost closing the back of your palate, and then breathing a rough "h" sound through it. 
χαρά, χάρις, χόρτος, χρόνος, ἄχρι, ἀρχή, δοχή, διδαχή, ἔχιδνα, ἔνοχος, τρέχοντες 
A1.36 ω is not "w", but long "о̄" ("ow"), as in "throw" or "rope".⁷
ἐγώ, ἔχω, ἄρχω, ἕως, ὧδε, ὥρα, κρίνω, ὁράω, διώκω, δώδεκα, ἐρωτάω, ἀγωγή 
A1.37 υ is indeed "u", but it is NEVER pronounced like the English "u" in "but". It is usually short (in which case it is pronounced like the "u" in "put"), and it can be long (in which case it is

APPENDIX A: A STUDENT'S GUIDE TO THE USE OF THIS BOOK 173 
pronounced like the "u" in "truth"). If it carries a circumflex, as in νῦν, it will always be long; if it has another accent or no accent, it could be either short or long: adopt the rule of thumb of pronouncing it as short (as in "put") unless you are told otherwise by your teacher. 
νῦν, νυκτός, γυνή, ὕδωρ, δυνατός, τυχόν, κύριος, ὑδρίας, ἐκχύννω, τέτυχεν, ὑγιές 
A1.4 GREEK LETTERS DIFFERENT IN APPEARANCE FROM ENGLISH 
A1.40 The remaining eight Greek letters are different in appearance from any English letters, and there is, in addition, another form of the letter "s" which is used whenever it occurs anywhere in a word EXCEPT as the last letter. 
A1.41 ζ is "dz" (a double letter), pronounced as in "adze".⁷ (This sound is also heard in the word "gods", though in this particular English word it is spelt with "ds".) Be careful to pronounce both sounds, even when this letter stands first in a word. 
γάζα, ζῆν, κράζω, ῥίζα, βιάζω, ἁγιάζω, ζωή, ζάω, ζητέω, ζυγός 
A1.42 θ is "th" as in "think" or "throw", NEVER as in "this" or "though". 
θεός, θύρα, θρόνος, καθώς, ἔθνος, ἐχθές, ἐχθρός, ἐνθάδε, ἀγαθός, καθαρός, θάνατος, θυγάτηρ, θεωρέω 
A1.43 λ is "l", as in "boil", "glimpse". 
λέγω, λόγος, βάλλω, θέλω, ἀλλά, καλός, λίθος, ὅλος, λαός, ὄχλος, ἐκλεκτός, λαλέω, δῆλον, βιβλίον 
A1.44 μ is "m", as in "men", "glimpse". 
μόνος, νόμος, ἅμα, ἐμός, ῥῆμα, μετά, μένω, μήτηρ, ὄνομα, τίθημι, δύναμις, ἡμέρα, ἔρημος, μαρτυρέω 
A1.45 ξ is "x" (a double letter), as in "six", "treks", "locks". 
νύξ, θρίξ, δόξα, ἔξω, ἕξετε, ἔξοδος,ἐξάγω, ἄξιος, δεξιός, ἀξίνη, ἐδέξατο, ξένος, ξύλον, δοξάζω 
A1.46 π is "p", as in "put", "group". 
πᾶς, πρός, παρά, ὑπό, ἐπί, ἑπτά, τόπος, πόλις, πάλιν, πίπτω, γραπτός, βλέπομεν, ἀγάπη, ἄνθρωπος 
A1.47 σ is "s" when used initially or medially (that is, elsewhere than at the end of a word). 
σύ, σύν, σάρξ, σῴζω, ὥστε, γλῶσσα, ὅσος, μέσος, κόσμος, ὅστις, Χριστός, γένεσις, ἐκκλησία, ἀπόστολος 
A1.48 φ is "ph", as in "photograph" (pronounced the same as the "f" in "feud"). 
φῶς, φωνή, φημί, φίλος, τυφλός, τρέφω, γράφω, σοφία, ἄφεσις, ἔφαγον, ἔφυγον, κεφαλή, ἀδελφός, προφήτης, ὀφθαλμός 
A1.49 ψ is "ps" (a double letter), as in "glimpse", "steps". 
ἅψας, ὀψία, διψάω, ὑψόω, θλῖψις, ὀψάριον, ψυχή, ψηφίζω, ἀποκάλυψις, ψαλμός, ψαλλέτω 
<hr>
</div>

<div id="A2" class="Lesson">
174 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
A2. LESSON TWO 
A2.1 STEMS AND SUFFIXES 
A2.11 The first goal for Lesson Two is understanding the concept of an inflected word. As a rough and ready rule-of-thumb you can take it that, in a given flexion, the part of a word that does not change is the stem, and the part that changes in the different forms in the flexion is the suffix. 
A2.12 Question: Apply this rule-of-thumb to κύριος and ἔργον (#2.40): what is the stem of each? 
A2.13 Answer: The stem of κύριος is κυρι-, which is the lexical morph (lexal) carrying the meaning "lord". The various morphs added to κυρι- are the suffixes called numbercase morphs meaning "nominative singular", "genitive plural", and so on as the case may require. Similarly the stem of ἔργον is ἐργ-, and the morphs that are added are the numbercase morphs, indicating number and case. Note the similarities and differences between the masculine and neuter numbercase morphs. 
A2.14 Question: Apply this rule-of-thumb to λύω (#2.81): what are its stem and suffixes? 
A2.15 Answer: The stem of λύω is λυ-, which is the lexical morph (lexal) carrying the meaning "loose", and the morphs added to λυ- can for practical purposes be treated as suffixed pronouns (pronoun endings) meaning "I", "you", "they", etc. 
A2.16 This rough rule-of-thumb sometimes needs to be elastic enough to take account of the fact that a stem can change. Thus, Question: What is the stem of the Article (#2.4) and of εἰμί (#1.95)? 
A2.17 Answer: The stem of the Article is τ- , and the rest of each form of the Article consists of the numbercase suffix; but in the nominative singular and plural of both masculine and feminine, the stem is the rough breathing only. The stem of eipi is really ἐσ-, but in three forms the -σ- has been replaced by an -ι- (the reason for this will be explained in due course). 
A2.2 THE REASON FOR THE MANY FORMS OF THE ARTICLE 
A2.21 The second goal is to understand the reason for the twenty-four forms of the Article. 
A2.22 Why so many? Because the noun selects the form of the Article that must be used with it, and the form of the Article selected will be the one that agrees with it in gender, number, and case. 
A2.23 A noun has an inherent gender: ἔργον, for example, is always neuter. This means that only the neuter forms of the Article can be used with it. In a particular sentence, if ἔργον is being used as a subject, and in the plural (as for example, "The works of the flesh . .", Galatians 5:19), then the form of ἔργον used will need to be the nominative plural, ἔργα, and this will select to accompany it that form of the neuter Article which is nominative plural, τά. 
A2.24 Similarly, if one wished to say "of the lord", κύριος will need to be in the genitive singular, κυρίου, and being masculine will select the form of the Article that is masculine genitive singular, that is, τοῦ. 
A2.25 The converse of this is that the Article is frequently a useful guide to the gender, number, and case of the noun with which it is used — something which becomes quite important with the Third Declension (see Lesson Five). 

APPENDIX A: A STUDENT'S GUIDE TO THE USE OF THIS BOOK 175 
A2.3 USING A PARADIGM TO FIND THE MEANING OF OTHER WORDS 
A2.31 At this point, make sure that you have memorized the set paradigms for this Lesson. The next goal is understanding how the paradigm of one word applies as a pattern for other words. 
A2.32 If the stem of κύριος is κυρι- and -ος is the numbercase ending, then we can tell that the stem of νόμος is νομ-, for -ος is its numbercase ending. From the paradigm of κύριος we see that, as κυρι- is the stem, -οις is the dative plural numbercase ending, having the meaning "to (the) — " or "for (the) — ", so that τοῖς κυρίοις means "to the lords" or "for the lords". Therefore if we put this same ending on to the stem νομ- (which means "law" — see #1.41), then we get τοῖς νόμοις, which thus means "to the laws" or "for the laws". Which of these two possible meanings is intended would be indicated by the context each time it is used. 
A2.33 So when you come across a Greek noun (say, θεοῦ), the first step towards understanding its meaning is to break it into stem and numbercase ending, then locate the lexical meaning of the word in your Vocabulary/Dictionary, and work out the meaning of the numbercase ending from the parallel form in a paradigm (that is, the form that has the same numbercase ending). The lexical form of θεοῦ) is θεός, "God", and so the appropriate paradigm for θεός is the one for κύριος, and the parallel form for θεοῦ is κυρίου, which is genitive singular. Thus we arrive at the meaning of θεοῦ as "of God", "God's". 
A2.34 The same approach is followed with verbs, using the paradigm for λύω (#2.81): λυ- is the stem (the lexal, carrying the verb's meaning) and the balance of the word consists of two grammatical morphs that are closely joined together. The first of these is the neutral morph (#2.77) and the second is the pronoun morph, a cut-down version of an unemphasized personal pronoun added to the word, meaning "I", "you", "they", or the like. 
A2.35 The neutral morph is always -ο- or -ε-: it is -ο- when it is followed by -υ- (λυ-ο-υ-σιν), and when the pronoun morph commences with a nasal (as in λυ-ο-μεν) or consists of lengthening the neutral morph (λυ-ω), and it is -ε- in all other cases. The role of the neutral morph will be explained later (#4.36 and #4.44(b)]. It does not affect us at present and so for convenience the neutral morph can be taken together with the pronoun morph. 
A2.36 Thus we can divide the forms of the flexion of λύω in this way: 

<table>
 <tr>
 <td></td><td></td><td>loose</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>S</td><td>1</td><td>λύ - ω</td><td>I</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td> </td><td>2</td><td>λύ - εις</td><td>you (singular)</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td> </td><td>3</td><td>λύ - ει</td><td>he/she/it</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>P</td><td>1</td><td>λύ - ομεν</td><td>we</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td> </td><td>2</td><td>λύ - ετε</td><td>you (plural)</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td> </td><td>3</td><td>λύ - ουσι(ν)</td><td>they</td>
 </tr>
</table>

A2.37 The same flexion can be constructed for any other verb:

<table>
 <tr>
 <td></td><td></td><td>see</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>S</td><td>1</td><td>βλέπ - ω</td><td>I</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td> </td><td>2</td><td>βλέπ - εις</td><td>you (singular)</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td> </td><td>3</td><td>βλέπ - ει</td><td>he/she/it</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>P</td><td>1</td><td>βλέπ - ομεν</td><td>we</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td> </td><td>2</td><td>βλέπ - ετε</td><td>you (plural)</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td> </td><td>3</td><td>βλέπ - ουσι(ν)</td><td>they</td>
 </tr>
</table>

A2.38 All the verbs that follow λύω in their present tense (the great majority of New Testament verbs) can be divided in the same way that has been done for βλέπω. You then replace the -ω of the lexical form with the appropriate pronoun suffix for the form that is required. Thus to form "they say", take the lexical form, λέγω, "I say", and substitute -ουσι(ν) ("they") for -ω ("I") to get the correct form λέγουσι(ν). 
A2.39 Test yourself: from ἔχω, "I have", construct the form "we have". 

176 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
A2.4 PRINCIPLES OF TRANSLATION 
A2.41 The various explanations and ideas that have been given so far can now be put together and used as the translation techniques for deciphering Greek sentences. The section which follows next will show how that is to be done. 
A2.42 First of all, however: reflect for a moment upon the question of what kind of translation you should aim to produce. There is a temptation for a student to attempt to give the best, smoothest, and most idiomatic English translation of the Greek sentences he is working on. This attempt is in fact misguided and unhelpful. Do not allow yourself to fall into this trap. 
A2.43 When you translate Greek material into English, this is not the ultimate purpose of your study in Greek at all. It is simply a means to an end. Your goal is to be able to read the Greek New Testament with understanding; when you translate from Greek into English, this is done as a stage in the process of developing your own understanding of the Greek, and it is also to enable your teacher to assess the level of your progress. Do not try, therefore, to put the passage into a kind of smooth-flowing, natural language that the biblical author may have used if he had in fact been writing in English. On the contrary: render the Greek into equivalent English so that the English shows what the author actually wrote in Greek. 
A2.44 Your aim therefore must be absolute accuracy in your translation into English. The Greek grammatical form must be expressed in its precise English equivalent: you must render a plural in Greek by a plural in English; if the Greek verb is present tense you must express it by a present tense in English; and so on. Translate what is there, without omitting material that is in the Greek or adding extra material into the English. This will very definitely mean that at times you are producing English that is stilted, jerky, and even perhaps unnatural, but the test is: Is it conveying accurately exactly what is being said in the Greek? 
A2.45 However, it is important to translate not only the words of the Greek into English, but also the other features of Greek syntax — word order, special constructions and ways of expressing an idea, etc. There is a difference, that is, between a word-for-word translation and a literal transla-tion. A word-for-word translation (as in an interlinear version) renders each word by its English equivalent but does not take due notice of units of expression larger than the word. A literal translation (and this is your aim) expresses in English exactly what is in the Greek but in doing so translates all the other features of the Greek in addition to just the words as such. 
A2.46 Some of the features of Greek syntax that have been referred to are ones that will be explained in subsequent lessons, but we can note these three examples from what has been covered in Lesson Two: (a) Greek names of people often have the Article; this Article would not usually be rendered in English (see #2.34); (b) Greek word position can indicate special emphasis (see #2.92), and it may be desirable at times to find a way in English of indicating this emphasis-by-position; (c) it is a Greek idiom that a neuter plural subject regularly takes a singular verb (see #2.17) — you would render this Greek singular verb into English in the plural. An example of another idiom to be covered later in the Course: When Greek reports indirect speech, it retains the tense that the original speaker would have used, whereas English requires that in indirect speech the verb be put into the past. 
A2.47 At times the Greek will be found to be ambiguous, being capable of having two (or more) interpretations. So far as possible, retain this ambiguity in your English rendering, so that you show an awareness of both possibilities; do not shut out, in your English version, part of the range of meaning that is present in the Greek. 

APPENDIX A: A STUDENT'S GUIDE TO THE USE OF THIS BOOK 177 
A2.48 The ultimate goal towards which you are aiming in Stage One of your Course is to be able to read the Selections from the Greek New Testament in Greek and understand the meaning of what the Greek is saying without actually translating them into English. Now this goal may prove to be beyond the reach of many who do the Course: but a slightly lower goal, which should be well within the range of most students, is to reach the point of being able to read through all the various sentences in this Course and to translate them orally at sight. You may well fall short of this at the time of doing each Lesson (though some students will be able to attain it), but after you have gone through all ten Lessons of the Beginner's Course and you return to the earlier Lessons to revise them (#A0.38), you should find yourself increasingly able to do this. 
A2.49 Always write your translation of sentences on a separate piece of paper. NEVER write a translation on the pages of this book itself. If you were to do that, you would see it each time you revised your earlier sentences, and your understanding would thus become limited to what it had been at the time your translation was first written out. To translate afresh each time you revise is to improve your competence in understanding the meaning of the Greek. 
A2.5 TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES 
A2.51 Before attempting the translation of a Greek sentence, read it over aloud in Greek one or more times, being careful to use the correct pronunciation. Try to get a "feel" for how the sentence operates (this will become easier as your familiarity with Greek improves). Associating the sound of Greek in word and sentence with the appearance of the Greek is a very valuable aid to learning which should not be neglected — it is reinforcing learning by familiarizing you with the sight and sound of Greek simultaneously. 
A2.52 The first step to take in commencing the actual work of translation is to check whether or not the sentence is a question. This will be indicated in your edition of the Greek New Testament by a question mark (;) at the end — as your familiarity with Greek increases, you will learn that there are also a number of Greek words which indicate that a question is being asked. If it is a question, you may possibly find it easier to translate the sentence first of all as if it were a statement, and then transform it into a question in English as a second step. 
A2.53 Look for the verb in the sentence (or, if it is a long sentence, with two or more sections joined by conjunctions such as καί, δέ, ἀλλά, γάρ, οὖν, or others that you will learn, work on the first section of the sentence first; then go on to the next section). At this stage you will be able to recognize the verb by its form: either it will be one of the forms from the flexion of εἰμί that you have learnt (#1.95) or it will consist of the lexal of a verb plus one of the endings of λύω) (see #2.81, #A2.36 and #A2.37). If you have learnt λύω thoroughly, you should be able to spot a verb quite quickly. In subsequent Lessons you will be introduced to more of the varied forms that a verb can take — each time you are presented with a new verb flexion it is important for you to note the features that will enable you to recognize each of its forms as being a verb. 
A2.54 If the verb is afirst or second person form, then the subject is an internal subject, that is, it is the pronoun suffix (#2.76) already contained within the verb: "I", "we" or "you" (singular or plural) as the case may be. There may also be an external subject in the sentence as well, which will be the nominative case of the separate pronoun with the same meaning, and this will thus have an emphatic effect (see #1.95, #2.86). The degree of emphasis will vary according to the style of the author and his intention in a particular context, and can range from slight to very emphatic: the context will be your guide. 

178 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
A2.55 If the verb is third person, then the next step is to look for an external subject (#2.84). If there is one, it will have three features which will aid you in locating it: (a) it will be in the nominative case (which you will recognize from knowing the nominative case endings for the different paradigms); (b) it will very frequently have the definite article in front of it, in the nominative case (and the forms of the article are ones that you have learnt, and are very easy to recognize); and (c) it will customarily be just after (or sometimes just in front of) the verb of which it is the subject — occasionally it may be separated from its verb by other words. If there is no external subject to be found, then you will make use of the verb's internal subject: "he" (or sometimes "she" or "it") if the verb is singular, and "they" if it is plural (#2.83, #2.85). 
A2.56 Look next for other words which are linked to subject and verb — an adjective referring to the subject (which will be either in front of the noun, or after the noun with the noun's article repeated in front of it; such an adjective will have the same gender, number and case as the noun), or a word — such as a negative — referring to the verb. Another common type of word to look for is a noun or pronoun in the genitive case referring to the subject. The usual position for such a genitive is immediately after the word to which it refers. 
A2.57 Now see if there are words in front of, after, or fairly close to the verb which are accusative case and are not preceded by a preposition. Apart from a few special idioms that you will meet in due course, these accusatives will normally form the direct object of the verb. In your English translation you will place such a word or words immediately after the verb. Thus in the sentence "You have faith", "faith" is the direct object and so will be in the accusative case (πίστιν) and, as is frequently the case for the direct object, it comes in front of the verb in Greek; when the sentence is translated into English this direct object is then placed after the verb ("have"). 
A2.58 Finally, translate any prepositional phrases (a preposition followed by a noun, either with or without an article between them) and any other words which remain. Use your Vocabulary Cards or the Greek Vocabulary at the end of this book (Appendix G) for any words you do not know. 
A2.59 Assemble your translation, putting the Greek word order into correct English order: any introductory words (such as "and" or "for" or "behold", etc.), the subject, the verb (noting if it is negative or interrogative), the object, if any, and any other expressions in the sentence, putting these with the words to which they refer. If a sentence is in two (or more) parts, the division will usually be marked by punctuation and/or a conjunction (such as "and" or "but" or similar word), and each part of the sentence (called a clause) is best handled separately. In your translation, do not take words out of one clause of a sentence and put them into another clause. 
A2.6 HANDLING GREEK WORD ORDER 
A2.61 Some people encounter no problem with Greek word order, while others find it very difficult. This section is intended to assist those who are having trouble with Greek word order. 
A2.62 In both languages, a sentence may consist of one or more clauses — if there are more than one, each clause will usually have a verb of its own, and at least one clause and quite probably both or all of them will have a conjunction (#2.18; #2.96). You need to deal with each clause on its own. 
A2.63 Your goal is to end up with an intelligible English sentence that accurately conveys the meaning of the Greek. Each Greek sentence and each English sentence consist of a number of "meaning units" — words, and groups of words which collocate (that is, "go together" in meaningful patterns). These "meaning units" are the "building blocks" of sentences in both 

APPENDIX A: A STUDENT'S GUIDE TO THE USE OF THIS BOOK 179 
languages. But Greek word order is rarely the same as English word order. Therefore, to achieve your goal you are going to need to translate Greek word order into English word order. Think of these "building blocks" as actually being empty boxes with different names, into which are placed the appropriate words of a clause or sentence. That is, a sentence (in Greek or English) is like a row of these boxes, with most of the words going into one box or another, and a few words being jammed into the "cracks" between two boxes. You will find these boxes in one order in a Greek sentence, and your task is not only to translate the Greek words but to rearrange the boxes into the right order required by an English sentence. 
A2.64 First, let us note the standard English word order. There are five main "building blocks" or "boxes", usually occurring in a set order: 
Conjunction Subject Verb Direct Object/ Complement Indirect Object 
That is, these are the names on the five "boxes" which make up an English sentence, and this is the order in which those boxes need to be placed. If the verb has a negative, this goes as part of the verb's "building block"; the article, adjectives, and genitives which refer to a noun go in that noun's "building block" or "box". Other words — vocatives, adverbs, prepositional phrases, and the like — are then fitted into the "cracks" between these "boxes". Very few sentences will have something in every "box" — for most sentences there will be one or more empty "boxes". Here is a two-part sentence which we can put into two rows of "boxes" and "cracks": "So Jesus told these parables to the crowds, but privately he explained everything to his own disciples." 

<table>
 <tr>
 <td>So</td><td></td><td>Jesus</td><td>told</td><td>these parables</td><td>to the crowds,</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>but</td><td>privately</td><td>he</td><td>explained</td><td>everything</td><td>to his own disciples.</td>
 </tr>
</table>

Sometimes these "boxes" can be rearranged differently in English — for example, some verbs (but only some) allow you to put the indirect object in front of the direct object, without using "to", like this: "So Jesus told the crowds these parables"; and you can usually rearrange some of the units, for example, "but to his own disciples he explained everything privately". But the pattern we are using will serve to give us an intelligible English sentence, so make it your goal to turn the Greek word order into this pattern in English. 
A2.65 Greek sentences are make up of the same basic "building blocks" as English sentences —#A2.5 has explained how these "meaning units" of a Greek sentence can be identified. Sometimes these "blocks" are already in the same order that English uses, as in Selections B9 and B22:
B9. 

<table style="border-radius: 10px;">
 <tr><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">Conjunction</td><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">ὁ ΠέτροςSubjectPeter</td><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">λέγειVerbsays</td><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">Direct Obj/Compl</td><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">αὐτῷ,Indirect Objectto him,</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">Conjunction</td><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">ΣὺSubjectYou</td><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">εἶVerbare</td><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">ὁ ΧριστόςDirect Obj/Complthe Christ.</td><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">Indirect Object</td></tr>
</table>

180 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 

<table>
 <tr><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">ἰδούConjunctionBehold</td><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">ἀποστέλλωSubject VerbI am sending</td><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">τὸν ἄγγελόν μουDirect Obj/Complmy messenger</td><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">Direct Obj/Compl</td><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">πρὸ προσώπου σου.[other words]before your face.</td></tr>
</table>

A2.66 However a typical Greek sentence will have these "building blocks" in a different order:

<table>
 <tr><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">Conjunction</td><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">Direct Obj/Compl</td><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">Verb</td><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">Subject</td></tr>
</table>

NOTE: (a) if a verb has a noun subject, it will typically be placed after the verb; (b) if a verb has a pronoun subject, this may occur anywhere in the sentence; (c) if a verb has an internal subject, then verb and subject will be just one word; (d) there is no typical position for an indirect object — it can be found almost anywhere, in one of the "cracks" between the "building blocks". 
Selections B4 and B21 follow the "typical" pattern of a Greek sentence: 
B4. 

<table>
 <tr><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">Conjunction</td><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">ἄρτουςDirect Obj/Compl</td><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">οὐκ ἔχομενVerb Subject</td><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">Subject</td></tr>
</table>

NOTE: A negative goes into the verb "block", and when there is no external subject there will be just the one "block" for the verb with its internal subject. 
B21. 

<table>
 <tr><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">Conjunction</td><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">ἔργα τῶν χειρῶν σούDirect Obj/Compl</td><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">εἰσινVerb Subject</td><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">οἱ οὐρανοί·Subject</td></tr>
</table>


<table>
 <tr><td>NOTE: </td><td>(a) εἰσιν is a verb of equivalence (#2.95), so ἔργα is its complement; </td></tr>
 <tr><td></td><td>(b) the genitive expression referring to ἔργα goes into the same "block" with it. </td></tr>
</table>

A2.67 Most Greek sentences will have one or more words which do not fit into any "box" and which lie in one or other of the "cracks" between the "boxes"; and/or which have a "box" in a different order. For example, in Selection B 1 the emphatic pronoun ("we", ἡμεῖς) comes first. Similarly B3, B7, B12 and B20. And you will notice how the "dative of the person(s) spoken to" usually comes after the verb of speaking (in B8, B9, B 13, B 16 and B 17 — but not in B 15). For each Greek clause or sentence, identify the "building blocks" used in it, and what words come in between them. 
A2.68 Now take these "building blocks" of the Greek sentence which you have identified, and translate the Greek words and the order of the Greek "blocks" into English words and the order of English "blocks". You may find it helpful, while getting used to this procedure, to draw up a grid for your translation of each Greek clause, with a named box for each "building block", and fill in, in the correct box, the English translation for each "meaning unit" of the Greek sentence when you have identified it. Bear in mind that other parts of a sentence not covered by these "boxes" will be placed in the "cracks" between them. 

APPENDIX A: A STUDENT'S GUIDE TO THE USE OF THIS BOOK 181
This is the box grid you can use for your English translation: 

<table>
 <tr><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">Conjunction</td><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">Subject</td><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">Verb</td><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">Direct Object/Complement</td><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">Indirect Object</td></tr>
</table>

A2.7 TACKLING PROBLEMS 
A2.71 All these guidelines are to be used for the Sentences of Lesson Two and for all subsequent Lessons in this Course as well — they will enable you to decipher most of the Selections from the Greek New Testament. But what should you do when you meet problems: a word or a sentence that you simply cannot work out? 
A2.72 The best advice for such a situation is, Give up on it. Don't worry about that particular Selection — after you have worked on it and tried to translate it, and found it too difficult to understand, leave it altogether, and go on to the next one. Never feel obliged to work out each Sentence before you can leave it for another one: if you keep wrestling with one that you find difficult you could waste a great deal of your valuable time which could be more profitably used in doing the other Selections. The problem which has temporarily defeated you will invariably solve itself as the range of your exposure to Greek material increases. If however you do wish to pursue the problem further when you first encounter it, the following guidelines will be of help, both for Lesson Two and all subsequent Lessons. 
A2.73 First of all, reread the particular Course Lesson, and if necessary look back over the previous Lessons as well. Chances are that you have overlooked some comment or explanation which will give you the key to the point that is unclear, or which will unlock the right approach to the meaning. (If there is not a comment or explanation in any of the previous Lesson material, write and tell me — it means I have omitted including one, and it would be helpful for me to have you point this out to me.) 
A2.74 Next, consult (according to the nature of the problem) a lexicon or dictionary, the appropriate Appendix at the end of this book, a detailed grammar book, or a commentary on the Greek text of the New Testament. 
A2.75 Check out the particular passage in an Interlinear Greek New Testament, or in one of the more literal English translations of the New Testament (RV or NASB), and see if this clears up the difficulty. (This is most likely to be helpful if the problem is being able to work out the right English order for the Greek words.) 
A2.76 If you are a member of a Greek class, discuss the problem with other members of your class. This is always a good practice for your Greek work generally — two or three students working together can often help each other to understand the full meaning of a Sentence, for one will see what another misses. 
A2.77 Make a note of the problem that you have met, and if it is not covered in working through the translations of the New Testament Selections at the next Session of your Greek class, raise the problem yourself for discussion and clarification. 
A2.78 But remember: don't be at all concerned at finding in practice that your knowledge of Greek is only partial and incomplete, even for dealing with these Selections from the Greek New Testament. Reading and more reading from the Greek New Testament is the best way of filling the gaps in one's knowledge. It is also the most enjoyable way. 
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<div id="A3" class="Lesson">
182 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
A3. LESSON THREE 
A3.1 PRONOUNS 
A3.11 The English equivalents for the personal pronouns should be carefully noted. They are: 
First Person Second Person
Third Person Masculine Feminine
Neuter
S N e yd) I 015 you afFcciç he afyrri she afxro it A eyelpe me cre you afirov him afyrriv her afyro it G epoi3/uov my col) your afYrof) his oct)-cfb; her afn-o13 its rto me rto you afyroj ito him I to her ito it D epoi /pot tfor me col ifor you af)11:7 t for her (xii i for it tfor him P N niueic we 'Oleic you throi at'n-ai af)Ta they A riyag us wag you at'rcoi5c- at')Tac af)rde them G npu5v our upo5v your ayrciiv cteniii v afn.ciiv their f to us , _ ito you to them D riiiiv vpiv airroic af)icafg. afyrof; {for them { us ifor you
A3.12 The longer forms of the first person singular pronoun (eye, etc.) are usually the emphatic forms, and the shorter forms (ye, etc.) are usually unemphatic, but sometimes this distinction does not seem to hold. The second person singular forms are emphatic if accented, unemphatic if not. 
A3.13 If you tend to confuse the respective meanings of r)peic and tViefg, note that the last letter of the English word is the first letter of its Greek equivalent: we long e you u 15,aeic 
A3.14 afird; al)24, afro means "he/she/it", but this word will be referring to some other word and takes the gender of the word that it refers to. Thus if afytdc refers to (for example) -kingdom" or "cloud" (which are feminine in Greek - see Vocabulary, L2/823 and L2/826), then it will need to be feminine in form, though the English translation would be "it" (because these words are neuter in English). 
A3.15 The plural forms of al:Fro; are all equivalent to English -they", but: the masculine plural covers masculine or combined masculine and feminine units; the feminine plural covers a group of units all of which are feminine; the neuter plural covers units which are neuter. "Unit" here means "whatever the word refers to", whether person or thing, and "masculine, feminine and neuter" refers to its/their grammatical gender in Greek. 
A3.16 The demonstrative pronoun/adjective ant); sometimes has the diphthong au- in its stem, and sometimes changes this to au-. Can you see when each one occurs? It is related to the ending of each form: if the ending contains an "o" (short or long), then the stem diphthong will be ov-; but if the ending contains an "a" (short or long - and this includes an i, which at times functions like a lengthened a), then the stem diphthong will be ay-. 
A3.17 The singular of oi5roc (see #3.32) means "this" and the plural means "these"; the same case meanings apply as usual, and the same features about gender apply as in #A3.15. Note that when a form of this word is used as a pronoun (i.e. without referring to another noun) it means "this one", and the gender indicates "this man", "this woman", "this thing" (#3.36). 

APPENDIX A: A STUDENT'S GUIDE TO THE USE OF THIS BOOK 183 
A3.2 THE PAST TENSES OF THE VERB 
A3.21 Note (#3.62) that k- added at the beginning of a verb form is the augment, the past time indicator or morph. Thus every verb that is referring to past time will commence with an k- if its lexal begins with a consonant; for example, 0a)ov, second aorist (note the single A) from PciA,A,co; and EiSov, from verb lexal iö- (#3.69). But there are some verbs which have a verb lexal commencing with k- (for example, x(.0, which we met in Lesson Two). Therefore, when working on a New Testament Selection, whenever we come across a verb form which commences with è-, we need to check in our Vocabulary or Dictionary to see whether this is a verb which has a lexal commencing with è-, or whether this k- is the past time morph added to the verb lexal. 
A3.22 When the verb lexal itself begins with E- , the past time morph (the augment) is the change of this E- into Thus the verb stem kAO- becomes 7);t9- when it is augmented (second aorist: 42,60v). Similarly, an initial a- also becomes , and o- becomes lengthened to co-. Whenever therefore we come across a verb form which commences with rfr or co-, we have to bear in mind that this may conceal an augment and thus the word may be a past time form of the verb. 
A3.23 There are some verb lexals which already begin with a long vowel or diphthong and are not changed by the addition of an augment. Thus the verb stem thy- remains thr- when augmented (second aorist: throv, #3.69). 
A3.24 There are three different patterns of the aorist active tense in Greek. This is to say, there are three conjugations in Greek (see #10.13) which may be clearly distinguished from each other in the aorist active flexion. The one being introduced this Lesson is the second aorist, i.e. the aorist active flexion of the Second Conjugation. The first aorist will be introduced in Lesson Four, and the third aorist in Lesson Seven. (Eipi is from the Third Conjugation, but the flexion from it which is given in Lesson Three is the imperfect tense — it has no aorist flexion.) 
A3.25 The second aorist active indicative is formed by prefixing the augment to the lexal and adding to the verb stem a two-part ending. The first part of this ending consists of a vowel which is called the neutral morph (see #2.77, #A2.35), and as in the present tense (see #A2.34) this two-part ending is made up of this neutral morph followed by the pronoun morph. Some of the pronoun morphs are the same in the second aorist as they were in the present tense (#A2.36), and some are different. 
A3.26 There are thus four morphs in the forms of the second aorist flexion: augment (past time morph); lexal; neutral morph; pronoun morph. They are all readily identifiable — except in the third person singular, where the ending is just -E. This -e is the pronoun morph: the neutral morph, -E-, elides (that is, slides off or hides from view) when a vowel suffix is added. (Elision will be further explained later on.) 
A3.27 Can you recognize the morphs in the forms of the flexion of f3a?Lov (#3.8)? The forms divide into morphs like this: 
1 -1(3o(A-o-v 2 .-Pot2L-E-3 -J3a). e(v) P 1 k-fica-o-atiEV 2 k-/3d)-e-TE 3 i-Pa).-o-v
A3.28 Sometimes we find that in a second aorist form a Greek writer has replaced the neutral morph with the vowel -a-, the vowel of the punctiliar morph which is used by the first aorist (as we

184 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
will see in Lesson Four). Thus we can come across thrav for the third person plural instead of the grammatically correct throv. An example of this is given in Selection 30 of this Lesson's Selections. This is a stylistic variation, and makes no difference in meaning. Indeed, it seems that when it is done it is intended to differentiate the third person plural from the first person singular form, throv- these two forms are identical in the paradigm of the second aorist. 
A3.29 Note the movable nu (#1.75) in the second aorist third person singular. 
A3.3 WAYS OF THINKING ABOUT GREEK VERB MORPHS 
A3.31 Understanding the functioning of the Greek verb is crucial for understanding the meaning of a Greek sentence. And a Greek verb is made up of many rnorphs each containing a unit of meaning, all of which together give the total meaning of the verb form in any particular sentence. 
A3.32 Like a freight train loaded with valuable merchandise, a Greek verb form is loaded with meaning. Just as a freight train consists of a number of "units" — trucks — each carrying valuable goods of different kinds, so a verb form consists of a number of "units" — morphs — each of which brings you a different piece of information. 
A3.33 To get the total value of your freight-train-load of goods, you have to unload all the trucks. Similarly, to get the value out of all the morphs in a Greek verb form, you must be sure to "unload" the meaning out of each individual morph, for every morph in the verb form is carrying its own piece of information for you. 
A3.34 Alternatively, a verb form can be viewed as a key to a lock, the morphs being the various bumps and indentations on the key. The exact form of these determines the particular meaning "unlocked" by a given verb form. 
A3.35 Or, a verb form can be likened to a jigsaw puzzle, the morphs being the different pieces, each of which has to be identified and put in its right place to build up the total picture. 
A3.36 Again, the meaning of a verb form is a mystery, and the morphs of the verb are the clues — work out the meaning of the clues, put everything all together, and you solve the mystery of what happened (the action described by that verb form). 
A3.37 One of the most helpful ways of viewing the verb morphs is as being like a set of electrical switches — some of them are simple on/off switches, and some are multiposition switches. Thus the augment is the past time on/off switch: when the augment is present in a word, this switch is "on", and it "switches" the meaning of that particular form of the verb to "past time position". The ending is a multiposition switch: when this switch reads "juev", this "position" indicates the meaning "we"; when this switch reads " Ti" , however, this "position" switches the meaning of the verb form to "you (plural)". And so on. 
A3.38 Keeping in your imagination these different ways of viewing the nature and function of the morphs in a verb form can help you in your approach to unscrambling its meaning. 
A3.4 CASE AFTER VERBS 
A3.41 Most verbs require accusative case in the noun which follows them as their direct object. Thus (Selection B26): et 8EV thjo a6E24aoc, where 815o dukAlpoijc ("two brothers") is the direct object of ET &V ("he saw"), and is therefore accusative case. 

APPENDIX A: A STUDENT'S GUIDE TO THE USE OF THIS BOOK 185
A3.42 Some verbs take the genitive case instead of (or as an alternative to) the accusative. Thus aicotjw, "I hear", is sometimes followed by the accusative case and on other occasions by the genitive case (as in Selection B 19). Different shades of meaning can sometimes be intended (see for example the standard commentaries on the use of ocovrj in the genitive case in Acts 9:7 and 22:7, but in the accusative case in Acts 22:9, in the accounts of Paul's conversion). 
A3.43 Some verbs take the dative case instead of the accusative case, especially where the noun refers to the person to whom the action of the verb applies. Thus 7r107E15C0 ("I believe") is often followed by the person who is to be believed, in the dative case. Alternatively, it can be followed by etc plus the accusative (as in Selection B6) or ?v plus the dative (as in Selection B 11). 
A3.5 COMMENTS ON THE ASSIGNMENTS 
A3.51 Do your Assignments in sequence. Make sure that you have memorized the paradigms set for learning in this Lesson — and in the previous Lessons — and that you understand the meaning of each of the forms you memorize. 
A3.52 After you have finished reading this section of Appendix A, answer the Questions in your Workbook, and then turn to your translations. Note particularly the Prepositions and the fact that each takes or selects a particular case (pErd has two possible cases, each with a different meaning). 
A3.53 When you commence your work on the Selections, remember to read each Selection aloud carefully and correctly before attempting to translate it (#A2.51). Then translate each of the Selections, not so as to produce smooth-flowing idiomatic English, but so as to bring out the exact meaning of the Greek. Read again #A2.44 to remind you of your aims in this regard. 
A3.54 Note that δέ never comes first in the Greek, but is always put first in the English rendering (#2.96). It can be translated either "and" or "but", according to the context (translate it as "and" unless the context shows that a contrast of some kind is in view, in which case "but" is the right rendering). 
A3.55 Some common expressions, especially with prepositions, are regarded as definite even (hough they do not use the definite article. Thus ev kthacio (Selections B23 and B28) means "in the middle/midst". Conversely, watch for places where the Greek article would not be required for English (as in Selection B1). 
A3.56 In addition to being used for "to" or "for", the dative case can also have the meaning of "in", as in T CP aái avopa-ct, "in your name" (Selection B 12). 
A3.57 When translating Selection B 19, remember that (contrary to the normal rules of agreement) in Greek a singular verb will normally be used after a neuter plural subject (see the Rule, #2.17). 
A3.58 If you need to find the meaning of a word in order to understand a particular Selection and the word is not printed alongside that Selection, this is because you have been introduced to this word already, either in a previous Lesson or earlier in this Lesson. You will be able to find the word in your pack of Vocabulary Cards, or in the earlier "New Words" for this Lesson. Remember to take off an augment, if it has one, in working out its lexical form (the form in which it will be given in a Vocabulary). (You will find it helpful to make out Vocabulary Cards for the new words of this Lesson as you come to each of them. so that you keep your pack fully up to date.) You can also look up any words you need in the Greek Vocabulary in Appendix 
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<div id="A4" class="Lesson">
186 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
A4. LESSON FOUR 
A4.1 PARADIGM OF THE ACTIVE OF )/ow 
A4.11 Note carefully the indicative flexions of this Paradigm; particularly: (a) that the future is the same as the present, with the future time morph, -a-, added between lexal and endings; (b) that the imperfect has the augment and exactly the same set of endings as the second aorist (see #3.81); (c) that the first aorist is marked by having -o-a- throughout, except only for the third person singular where the punctiliar morph is -a-, the -a- of the full morph -aa- eliding when a vowel suffix (-E-) is added; (d) that the perfect has the same suffixes as the first aorist (with the aspect morph -Ica- instead of -aa-). The one exception is the third person plural, which is -at(v) not -v. 
A4.12 Note the meanings of the different morphs in the future forms; that the neutral morph has no meaning (when short, it simply shows that the form is not subjunctive mode); and that the English meaning of the word can be read across from right to left in the combined meaning of all the other morphs. Thus: — a — o loose will we 
A4.13 Similarly, the meaning of the aorist and perfect forms can be read in the morphs: (a) The aorist: e — A.v aa — 1.IEV -ed loose- we 
The aorist morph -aa- is not translated, but is noted as indicating the punctiliar meaning of the form, as distinct from the durative meaning of an imperfect tense form, etc. (The meaning of the imperfect cannot be read off from the morphs in this way, but aboitiev means "we were loosing".) (b) The perfect: — — /1EV -ed loose- have we 
A4.14 When a verb lexal commences with a consonant, the rule for reduplication is: double that initial consonant, and insert -E- between them. Thus, for the verb 8otaeow, the 8- is doubled and -E- inserted between, and the aspect morph -Ka- added to the lexal, to give the perfect 8e6otaevica. (When a verb commences with a vowel, a p, an aspirate, a double letter or two consonants together, special reduplication rules apply: see #E4.3.) 
A4.15 Note carefully the subjunctive flexions; particularly: (a) that the present subjunctive is the same as the present indicative but with the neutral morph lengthened, and that the -t- of a diphthong goes subscript and the -v- of the diphthong -ov- drops out; (b) that the aorist subjunctive is the same as the present subjunctive, with the punctiliar morph, -a-, added between lexal and endings. (The -a- of the full punctiliar morph -aa-has elided before the vowel suffixes.) 
A4.16 Note that the difference of meaning between the present and aorist subjunctive has nothing to do with time, but aspect. The present subjunctive means that the action under consideration (for example, "we might loose") is of a durative nature ("we might loose on an ongoing or continuing basis"). The aorist subjunctive means that the action under consideration is of a once-only nature, or relates just to the occasion in question ("we might loose on this particular occasion"). This difference of aspect applies to all use of the subjunctive. 
A4.17 Note carefully the other forms of the active Paradigm, and especially the differences between the corresponding forms of present and aorist. 
A4.18 Note that the aorist only has the augment in the indicative mode, which means that the aorist has past time signification only in the indicative mode. 

APPENDIX A: A STUDENT'S GUIDE TO THE USE OF THIS BOOK 187 
A4.19 Note the three pairs of forms in these flexions which have the same spelling: 0vov: the 1st person singular and 3rd person plural of the imperfect (we saw this also last Lesson for the second aorist, #3,83); ittjw: the 1st person singular present of the indicative and also of the subjunctive; 2.13cro): the 1st person singular future indicative and also aorist subjunctive. When these "ambiguous" forms are used, usually some factor in the context will enable you to know which of the pair is intended in any given instance. 
A4.2 EXAMPLES OF VERB USE AND RULES 
A4.21 In #4.45 we learn that the words Iva ("in order that") and div ("ever", indicating indefinite-ness) take the subjunctive after them. The word div is used when the indefiniteness of something is being expressed. Thus: (./1; áv n-apeA9r3 6 apavac icth tj yf (L4/B18), literally "until ever the heaven and the earth were to pass away", indicating the indefiniteness and uncertainty of the time when they shall pass away, or indeed the uncertainty that they ever shall. Occasionally this óv is written in the variant form kav, with the same meaning. Thus, bc kav oZ-v 2.15Trii (L4/B 18), "whoever then were to loose/break ..." Usually eav (a combination of Ei, "if", and ay) means "if ever", as in Kai kav 15piv EI7r0 ... (L4/1321), "and if ever anyone were to say to you ...", indicating that it is a possibility (but not certain) that someone will say something. 
A4.22 Similarly, 'Iva takes the subjunctive, for it usually expresses a purpose. Thus, Iva rcAripwerj )67.70ev 6tde rof) 7rpoOrfrov (L4/B19), "in order that what was spoken through Isaiah the prophet should be fulfilled". Sometimes Iva is used to indicate what should happen (and is translated "that"). Thus: bre-ripricev af)roi,; Iva oavepov afrrOv 7rotrio-watv (L4/B19), "he commanded them that they should not make him known". At times Iva is used to express a wish. Thus, Paf3Povvi,'Iva avaf3Aitm (L4/1321), "Rabbi, [my wish is] that I might see again". 
A4.23 Example of future of liquid verb (#4.56): In the future atjpw ("I drag") becomes first of all oweco, with the addition of future morph -E-, and then when this form is actually used in writing or speaking the two contiguous vowels (that is, vowels next to each other) contract and the word form becomes owai: note the different accent, which results from the contraction and distinguishes the future from cropco, the present tense. Similarly the future of vim ("I judge") is kplvew, which contracts to vivo5. (This is the sixth situation where an accent should be noted: for the five earlier ones, see #A1.37, #2.88, #3.37, #4.17, and #4.94.) 
A4.3 THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN PAIRS OF SIMILAR PREPOSITIONS 
A4.31 The core meaning of eic is "into" — something/someone is outside an environment, and enters it. Thus Jesus was driven by the Spirit Eig. iiv 437-1,uov (L3/B29). The core meaning of n-poc,- is "towards" — it means to go to someone/something, but does not include in its meaning the idea of entering it. The English sentence "They came to the town" does not itself indicate whether they entered it or stopped outside. Greek is able to resolve this ambiguity: if it uses eic for "to", then they entered the town; if it uses npoc then it implies they reached the town but does not in itself imply that they entered it. 
A4.32 Part of the extended meaning of Eig is "right up on to". Thus if the disciples came gpoc the mountain, they arrived at it; if they came eic the mountain, they went right up on to it. (See Selections B4 and B7.) Both Irpog and si; imply motion, but eic indicates that the motion continued right into the sphere indicated by the word which follows it. 
A4.33 Sometimes the sense of Eic is "throughout", as in Selection B5, ei; ariv rfiv FaAlAalav, "throughout the whole of Galilee". 

188 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
A4.34 An extended meaning of Eig is "for, with a view to". Thus L5/B11, eig doEctv apapzicov, "for the forgiveness of sins". 
A4.35 There is an exactly parallel distinction between kIC and (bro. & indicates the source or origin out of which something has come. It was inside, and now it has come from there. Thus L3/B13, "Did the baptism of John arise out of heaven or out of men?" (k of)pavoii TY devOpoilrow;)— this is a question about its origin or source. Similarly in L2/B5. 
A4.36 An extended meaning of eK is that something started right at the point mentioned. Thus L3/B7, E apxlic, "right at the beginning, or at any point after that". 
A4.37 In contrast, ago can be used of being distant from something without implying having come from that something or not. Thus in L3B18 the disciples in the boat were not far durb Tfig yfig, "from the land". Had they come from that shore or not? The wording does not indicate. Again in L3/B14 Jesus tells a man that he is not far dare 2 lig Pao-IA.Eiag, "from the kingdom". It is obvious that this does not mean that he had been in the kingdom and had left it; on the contrary, he was coming close to the kingdom, but he was still some distance dura it. A4.38 Another extended meaning of kiC is to indicate the connection of someone with a group. Thus L5/B10, ko-re 26V VOParCOV 2o5v kycov, "you are out of my sheep", that is, "you are part of my sheep, you belong to my flock". It does NOT mean "you are out of my sheep" in the sense "you have left my flock". This meaning of "belonging to" or "being a member of" a group is a very common meaning of eic. 
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<div id="A5" class="Lesson">
A5. LESSON FIVE 
A5.1 GRAMMAR AND VOCABULARY 
A5.10 The goal of this Lesson is to understand how the Third Declension works. It may be helpful for some people if this goal is broken down into a series of small steps, which indicate how to go about achieving it in stages. 
A5.11 First of all, learn ἰχθύς, because it is the basic Third Declension pattern paradigm. It has a long vowel stem (the upsilon is long, as in νῦν, pronounced as in the keyword "truth", #1.52). Note that the endings are added straight to the stem without any modifications. 
A5.12 In contrast, whenever endings are added to short vowel or consonant stems, linguistic modifications will occur. Most of these modifications are predictable, and are explained by the Rules (#5.31—#5.38). The second thing to do, then, is to learn crap, and to compare its paradigm with that of ixOt5g. Be sure that you understand the differences: adif:4 takes the consonant-stem ending -a- for the accusative singular (#5.30), and combines the last phoneme of its stem, -1C, with a following sigma into in accordance with the Amalgamation Rule (#5.33). Otherwise its paradigm is identical with that of izaog. 
A5.13 Thirdly, compare the other vowel stem paradigms (#5.20) with izafig and note how they agree with and vary from it. Some explanation of these variations will be given at a later stage; for now, seek to cultivate "recognition memory" of the forms of the vowel stem paradigms by the comparison and contrast with ixffac. 
A5.14 Fourthly, note the other Linguistic Modifications Rules one at a time (#5.34—#5.38), and observe how these Rules account for the other regular paradigms given in #5.30 and #5.44. If you understand these six Rules, you will understand what is happening in the forms of the vast majority of Third Declension words. This is an understanding well worth gaining. 

APPENDIX A: A STUDENT'S GUIDE TO THE USE OF THIS BOOK 189 
A5.15 Next, compare how the "slightly irregular" consonant stem paradigms of the "family group" 4) vary from the regular, and note the explanations of these variations (#5.41—#5.44). 
A5.16 Then note the similarities and differences of the neuter paradigm (Rolla with its ---1Lculine/feminine equivalent, raic, D3.8 (#5.5). 
A5.17 Finally, observe how adjectives use the paradigms of the three Declensions (#5.7—#5.8). Note particularly 7t-ok6c; and Reyac (#5.85), which change their masculine/neuter from Third to Second Declension after the first two case forms; and Er; (#5.86) — students often confuse :he masculine and neuter forms with prepositions because of not noting the rough breathing, and sometimes they totally fail to recognize Ilia as the corresponding feminine flexion form when they encounter it. Be sure, also, that you are able to identify the compound forms of 6; ofkkic and 77 &li 
A5.18 The most important of the Third Declension noun paradigms have been set out in Lesson Five. For all the others, including full paradigms for adjectives, see Appendix D. 
A5.2 EXERCISE: The answer for #5.39: S N vv A vOicra G vvIcrog D vv KT/ P N V1j1C2Ec A vijicrac G vu icro5v D vt4i (v) 
A5.3 ITERATED PREPOSITION 
A5.31 It is quite common to find that some Greek authors will use the same preposition in a compound verb and governing a noun in a related prepositional phrase. For example, in L5/B6, EA,OE a (throf), and again in kfiA,19Ev afnofi. 
A5.32 This is a stylistic feature, referred to as the iterated preposition, and does not indicate emphasis upon the preposition. In translating, you can choose a word which captures both prepositions; e.g., in the above example, "depart out of him". Frequently it is sufficient to translate just one of the iterated prepositions. 
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<div id="A6" class="Lesson">
A6. LESSON SIX 
A6.1 POINTS TO NOTE 
A6.11 NOTE CAREFULLY how the presence of the morph -pev- in Slot 8, the Specifier Slot, indicates that the form is a middle participle (#6.35); but that a middle future participle form will be switched to passive by the insertion of the passive morph -en- in Slot 5. Thus: kvaopEvoc is the middle future participle (#6.33), and AvOricroiuevoc is the passive future participle (#6.50). The slot is important: -,tiev in Slot 9, the final slot, is the pronoun "we". NOTE ALSO that the aorist passive participle has a completely different flexion from the aorist middle participle (#6.29, #6.50). 
A6.12 NOTE CAREFULLY that Greek has no passive flexions for the durative and perfective aspects and can use the present and perfect middle forms with passive meaning (#6.37, #6.50). Because of this, whenever you come across a present or perfect middle form, examine the context carefully to assess whether the author's intended meaning is the middle or the passive voice. 

190 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
A6.13 NOTE CAREFULLY that only the future and aorist tense systems take the passive morph -9e/On-. In itself, this morph indicates "aorist passive" unless it is followed by the future morph which in its turn must always be followed by the neutral morph (#4.22, #4.74). The presence of these three morphs together — passive, future, and neutral morphs — indicates that the form is future passive. 
A6.14 THE REFLEXIVE PRONOUN: Do not overlook the Reflexive Pronoun given at the end of Lesson Six (set out in full in Appendix D, #D6.8). The 1st person singular means "myself", the 2nd person singular "yourself", the 3rd person singular "himself/herself/itself" (depending upon gender). Note that the one plural flexion is used for first, second, and third person, and means "ourselves/yourselves/themselves" — the reflexive pronoun reflects the subject of the verb, and thus the person of the verb will indicate which person is meant for the pronoun. 
A6.2 THE NINE MORPH SLOTS OF THE VERB 
A6.21 Progressively, we have now been introduced to all nine morph slots of the verb, that is, positions in a verb framework where a unit of meaning can be placed. The verb's lexal is the core of the verb, carrying the word's lexical or dictionary meaning. There are three types of prefix which can be placed before it, and five kinds of suffix which can be added after it. These nine morph slots of the verb can be likened to switches each of which "switches" the meaning of the verb to a particular alternative (see #A3.37). 
A6.22 In a compound verb, four slots are always filled, that is, always contain a morph, each of which will be one of a range of alternatives (with different meanings) that can occur in that slot. Each of these four slots is thus like a multiposition selection switch — it selects for that slot a particular meaning out of the range of alternatives available. These four slots are Preposition, Lexal, Aspect, and Ending, and they thus provide the basic framework for the structure of every verb form (so that a zero morph in one of these four slots is significant). They are represented in the diagram that follows as circular switches. 
A6.23 In between these four framework slots are five other slots, all of which can be likened to on/off switches. They are represented in the diagram as rectangular switches. Four of the five are simple on/off switches — for these slots there is no range of alternative morphemes. Rather, there is only one morpheme (or unit of meaning) which can occur in a given slot, though a morpheme can have different allomorphs or alternative morphs — that is, it can have different forms, with identical meaning. (For example: the future morph, which is -e- after liquids and -6- otherwise.) If this morpheme is present in its slot it switches the verb to have that particular meaning (that is, in the example just given, "future"). Thus these are all optional slots — slots which may contain a morph, or may not. 
A6.24 The fifth optional slot, Slot 8, is also an on/off switch, but if it is "on" — that is, if it is filled by a morph — it can have in it any one of six different possible morphemes, and the verb will then be "switched" to the meaning given by that particular morpheme. Only one of these six morphemes can occur in any given verb form (which is why it is only one slot, not six); or Slot 8 may be "off", and have no morpheme in it at all. 
A6.25 The English meaning can frequently be "read off" for a Greek verb form by giving each morph its English equivalent and then reading the morphs from right to left. Examples:
e — v — 017 — aav eIC - ;71111 - 817 - a - E - tai w — run — Ica --ed loosen- were they out sought be will it -t kep- have you 

A6.3 THE GREEK VERB MORPH SLOT DIAGRAM 
The Greek verb has nine morph slots, which can be viewed as being a mixture of on/off and multi-position switches. 

<table>
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PREPOSITION 20-position switch for: No preposition (simplex) 18 prepositions Special prefix (#E4.14)

OFF ON

i1f1 T r:i "mi j I J

PAST REDUP- LEXAL TIME LICATION
On/Off On/Off The lexal will be one of the one thousand that occur in the New Testament.


OFF -1
ON
PASSIVE FUTURE VOICE TIME
On/Off On/Off
o-

41E ASPECT
3-position switch
(Absent in Third Conjugation flexions.)

OFF ON'
cs) 0)
2
4
5
6
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INTRODUCTION 
HOW THIS COURSE OF STUDY WORKS 
0.1 As the purpose of this Course is to equip the ordinary Christian with the ability to read and understand the Greek New Testament, the primary emphasis is upon learning to read Greek. There are English-into-Greek sentences provided for translation, to direct the attention of the student to how Greek handles specific grammatical situations; but the main emphasis is not upon translating from English into Greek (on the assumption that it is not really the aim of students to learn how to do this). Grammar is introduced and taught in this Course on an "explanation" basis — elements of grammar are explained which will enable the student to understand the sentences from the Greek New Testament that he is being given to work with. That is, you learn your grammar at the point where you will use it, and you then use it in the sentences given at the end of the Lesson in which you were introduced to it. 
0.2 There is much less emphasis in the Course upon learning vocabulary than is usual in a beginning Greek Course. There are two reasons for this: First of all, it is because there is no actual word-for-word correspondence between Greek and English, but most words have a number of meanings the choice of which to a considerable extent is context-determined. For a new student of Greek to learn a single word of English as representing a particular word of Greek can therefore be misleading. Rather, the meaning of each Greek word is given for its particular context in a passage, and then these words are used and re-used in slightly varying contexts, in order to lay a foundation for the understanding of the "area of meaning" of each word. The second reason is a firm conviction on my part that, as a student has only a given amount of time available for spending on Greek study, he is much better employed in spending it, not in learning vocabulary lists, but in actually reading and grappling with a slab of Greek text, with an open word-list/vocabulary alongside. He will of course find that many word-meanings will "stick" in his memory, and he should encourage this. These word meanings will be reinforced and expanded as he reads more and more widely in Greek as the Course progresses. 
0.3 This does not mean that learning vocabulary is unimportant but, rather, that words are better learnt in context than in isolation. Therefore make it your aim to master the meanings of words as you see them used — and the Assignments for each Lesson include making out Vocabulary Cards for the new words of that Lesson. By the time you complete the ten Lessons of the Beginner's Course you will have been introduced to the three hundred words which occur more than fifty times each in the Greek New Testament. These are listed in Appendix G of this book. It is very useful to go through this list at least once every week or so, and tick off in pencil those that have been learnt: this enables you to see for yourself how you are progressing. These three hundred words are referred to as "common New Testament words", and in the vocabulary that is listed for each of the Lessons of this book these common New Testament words are marked with an asterisk, *, to indicate that it is particularly worthwhile remembering them because of their frequency. 
0.4 The Beginner's Course is self-contained and complete: no additional books are required. When you are ready to begin reading the Greek New Testament, you will need a good edition, and an Analysis or Key. 
THESE ARE THE BASIC BOOKS YOU WILL NEED: 
The Greek New Testament (United Bible Societies, Third or Fourth Edition) 
Greek—English Dictionary of the New Testament (Ed. B.M. Newman, United Bible Societies) 
(It is preferable to use the edition which has these two combined in one volume.) 
An Analysis of the Greek New Testament (Zerwick and Grosvenor, Biblical Institute Press) 
Or A Linguistic Key to the Greek New Testament (Rienecker and Rogers, Zondervan) 
11 
12 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
THESE BOOKS ARE USEFUL: 
Biblical Greek (M. Zerwick, Biblical Institute Press) 
Reader's Greek—English Lexicon of the New Testament (S. Kubo, Andrew's University Press/ Zondervan) 
The Morphology of Biblical Greek (William D. Mounce, Zondervan) 
Greek—English Lexicon of the New Testament (Bauer, Arndt, Gingrich and Danker, University of Chicago Press) 
0.5 Remember that the aim of the Course is not really to train you in translating the Greek New Testament into English, but to enable you to understand the meaning of the New Testament in Greek. Therefore, do not concentrate on the task of translation as an end in itself, but use your translation work as a means of reaching your real goal, which is to understand what the text says in Greek, and what it means by what it says. This is your first step towards putting it into practice yourself, and teaching its meaning and message accurately to others. 
0.6 Paragraphs in the book which begin NOTE or IMPORTANT NOTE contain points which it is very important for readers to note; and paragraphs which begin RULE contain a point of grammar formulated as a Rule of the Greek language, which should then be learnt. 
0.7 NOTE: # indicates a cross-reference to a paragraph in this book: # followed by a number refers to the Lesson with that number in the Beginner's Course; # followed by a letter refers to that Appendix in the Reference section. Thus #1.46 refers to the paragraph with that number, which will be found in Lesson One; and #C1.21 refers to the paragraph in Appendix C with that number. // is placed between references to parallel passages in the Gospels. 
0.8 NOTE: When a new term is introduced and defined or explained, it is given in italics (see for example in #1.9 and #2.1). The meaning of the new term should be learnt at that point. 
0.9 IMPORTANT NOTE: Under no circumstances ever write an English translation above any of the Greek sentences in this book — this would restrict your later understanding to what you had learnt at the time that you wrote out that translation. (But you may of course photocopy or copy out the sentences you are working on, and put on that copy an interlinear rendering of the words, as an intermediate step while you are engaged in working out the meaning of those sentences.) 
ABBREVIATIONS 
These abbreviations are used in the grammatical notes at the end of each Lesson: 

<table>
<tr>
<td>
<table>
<tr>
 <td>A or acc </td>
 <td>accusative </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>act </td>
 <td>active </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>adj </td>
 <td>adjective </td>
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<tr>
 <td>adv </td>
 <td>adverb </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>aor </td>
 <td>aorist </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>C or conjg </td>
 <td>conjugation </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>conj </td>
 <td>conjunction </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>D </td>
 <td>declension </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>D or dat </td>
 <td>dative </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>dep </td>
 <td>deponent </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>f or fem </td>
 <td>feminine </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>fut </td>
 <td>future </td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
<td>
<table>
<tr>
 <td>G or gen </td>
 <td>genitive </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>impf </td>
 <td>imperfect </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>impv </td>
 <td>imperative </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>indecl </td>
 <td>indeclinable </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>indic </td>
 <td>indicative </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>inf </td>
 <td>infinitive </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>L </td>
 <td>Lesson/Lengthened </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>m or masc </td>
 <td>masculine </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>mid </td>
 <td>middle </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>n or neut </td>
 <td>neuter </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>N or nom </td>
 <td>nominative </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>P or pl </td>
 <td>plural </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>pass </td>
 <td>passive </td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
<td>
<table>
<tr>
 <td>pf or perf </td>
 <td>perfect </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>pers </td>
 <td>person </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>plpf </td>
 <td>pluperfect </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>prep </td>
 <td>preposition </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>pres </td>
 <td>present </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>ptc </td>
 <td>participle </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>refl </td>
 <td>reflexive </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>S or sg </td>
 <td>singular </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>subj </td>
 <td>subject </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>subjv </td>
 <td>subjunctive </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>V or voc </td>
 <td>vocative </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>Ø </td>
 <td>zero morph </td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
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STAGE ONE: BEGINNER'S GREEK COURSE 
LESSON ONE 
THE GREEK LANGUAGE 
1.1 SOME BACKGROUND INFORMATION ABOUT GREEK 
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1.11 Some hundreds of years before the time of Christ, the country now called Greece consisted of a number of separate city-states. The people of these states shared a common culture and a common language, though with some differences of dialect from one region to another. In the centuries before Christ's birth, Attic (the dialect of Athens) had become the main literary form of the language, and this is what is known now as "Classical Greek". Through the conquests of Alexander the Great, Greek then became the official language of most of the Middle East, and was used as the language of trade, learning, and administration throughout the whole of his Macedonian Empire. 

1.12 During this process, however, the literary form of Attic became broken down into a somewhat simpler and less rigid pattern of grammar, and it absorbed words and forms from other Greek dialects and also from other languages (including Latin). This colloquial form of Greek is known as "Hellenistic Greek", or koine ("common") Greek.2 In the First Century AD koine Greek was spoken and understood throughout Palestine and around the entire Mediterranean basin, as well as much further afield in the Roman Empire and beyond. At this time Rome ruled the civilized world, and Latin was the official language of government; but Greek continued as the common language of everyday activity and communication. It is illustrative of the situation at the time that the inscription on the Cross (see John 19:20) was written in Aramaic (the local language in Judea), Latin (the official language of government), and Greek (the common language that just about everyone could read). 
1.13 It is highly probable that Jesus gave much of his teaching in Greek, and we may well have in the Gospels a great deal of material that is not in fact a translation from Aramaic into Greek but a record of Christ's actual words in Greek.' Thus koine Greek naturally became the language in which the New Testament was written, as it was the ideal vehicle for enabling God's message to reach the greatest readership. Even the Epistle to the Hebrews was written in Greek, not Aramaic, and the Epistle to the Romans was written in Greek, not Latin. 
1.14 As a result of a law passed in Attica in 403 BC4, there came to be 24 letters in the alphabet of Athens, and thus of Classical, New Testament, and indeed modern Greek. In ancient times and across various dialects, there had been other letters representing the sounds of Greek speech. As pronunciation changed over the centuries, so did spelling. Three letters, koppa, sampi and digamma survive only as numbers.' The first two are variants of kappa ("k") and sigma ("s") respectively. Digamma was a "w" or "v" sound, which dropped out of Greek pronunciation but has left behind a few peculiarities in the words in which it used to occur — we look at these in later Lessons. 
1.15 The common form of writing used in the First Century is called UNCIAL, and this was replaced in the Ninth/Tenth Centuries by an alternative style called cursive or "running" writing.' The cursive style is used now for all printing and writing, whilst the uncial letters function (with slight variations) as capital letters. 
1.16 NOTE: In the standard printed editions of the Greek New Testament, capital letters are used for: 
(a) proper nouns (the names of people, places or things, like "Jesus", "Bethlehem", "Jordan"), 
(b) to mark the beginning of a paragraph, and 

(c) at the beginning of direct speech (that is, when the actual words which someone spoke are being quoted). 
Apart from these circumstances, a sentence does not begin with a capital. (Some editors of editions of the Greek New Testament may differ slightly from this convention, by using capitals for sub-paragraphs or not using them for direct speech.) We can see then that capitals are relatively infrequent in Greek. 
1.17 During the koine Greek period (330 BC to 330 AD), some of the sounds were pronounced differently at different times and places (compare similar differences in the pronunciation of English today in various parts of the world). Thus there is a degree of uncertainty about the way to pronounce some letters, especially the vowels.' In cursive writing, small marks called accents were placed above one of the vowels of each word, as a guide to pronunciation; unfortunately, the key to the meaning of this pronunciation system has been lost. 
1.18 In learning and using New Testament Greek today, we are not going to attempt to pronounce words in the way that a First Century speaker would have done - indeed, this would hardly be possible, because (as we have seen) there was no uniform way of pronouncing the language but there was some diversity of pronunciation during the Hellenistic period. Instead, a standardized pronunciation system is adopted which is indeed based on how Greek sounds were pronounced but which is also intended as an aid to memorization.8 Even in this regard, however, there are variations in the pronunciation of New Testament Greek which will be found in its use today. 
1.19 The pronunciation scheme followed in this book is a common one which is in current use. It adopts pronunciations which were used during the Hellenistic period and also takes account of how words are spelt and how they are best pronounced by students of New Testament Greek today, with the goal of having a phonemic system, that is, "one letter, one pronunciation". Thus the pronunciation scheme adopted in this book (which is also found in numerous other Grammars of New Testament Greek) is superior on these grounds to the alternatives, particularly because it has the practical advantage that (with a minor exception) no sound has more than one spelling: so that if you can remember the pronunciation of a word this will assist you to remember the spelling. 
1.2 ACCENTS AND BREATHINGS 
1.21 When you look at a page of the printed Greek New Testament, you will notice that the letters of the Greek alphabet are different from those of English, and that almost every Greek word has one or more little marks or signs written above one (or more) of the letters. The signs are only written above the Greek letter for "r" if it comes first in a word, or above vowels. These signs are of two completely different types, accents and breathings. 
1.22 Most Greek words carry an accent, which will be written above one of its vowels.⁹ This accent will be one of three kinds: an acute (written ´), a grave (pronounced to rhyme with "carve", written `), or a circumflex (really a combination of the acute and grave, written ^, but in some printers' typefaces it will be printed as ῀ or - as in this book ῀ ). In this book, the Greek words are given with their accents, because they are printed with accents in the text of the New Testament which the reader of this book will be learning to use. There are a small number of instances where accents are useful for the student, by serving to distinguish between word pairs which are identical apart from their accent, or by assisting with pronunciation - attention will be drawn to these instances when they are encountered. Apart from these special instances, accents serve no real purpose for those starting Greek study, and can be ignored. (The general principles of accentuation are set out in #E6, which is reached at the end of the Intermediate Course.) 

ONE: THE GREEK LANGUAGE 15
1.23 When a Greek word begins with a vowel or the letter "r", that initial vowel or "r" will be written with a mark over it which is called a breathing. There are two kinds of breathings, which look very much like English single opening and closing quotation marks (or "inverted commas"), ῾ and ᾿. 

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</iframe>1.24 If the breathing is curled to the right, like an opening inverted comma, ῾, then it is called a rough breathing, and it is pronounced as an "h" in front of the word. 
1.25 If the breathing is curled to the left, like a closing inverted comma, ᾿, then it is called a smooth breathing, and it simply indicates that the word is not pronounced with an "h" in front of it. 
1.26 Thus ὀσ- would be pronounced "os", but ὁσ- is pronounced "hos"; and ἐκ- is pronounced "ek", but ἑκ is pronounced "hek". NOTE: "οσ-" or "εκ-" could not exist, because without a breathing over the initial vowel you would not know whether or not the word started with an "h". The letters upsilon (υ, "u") and rho (ρ, "r"), always carry a rough breathing when they are initial; all other initial vowels may have either a smooth or a rough breathing. 
1.27 If a word begins with two vowels which are pronounced together (this is called a diphthong), then the rough or smooth breathing will be placed over the second vowel of the diphthong. Examples: οἰκία ("oikia"); οἱ ("hoi"). If a word begins with two vowels which are not pronounced together as a diphthong, then the breathing will be placed over the first vowel. Example: ἐᾶτε, "e-a-te". 
1.28 An accent can fall on the same vowel as a breathing. If it is an acute or a grave accent, the breathing comes first, followed by the accent: thus, ", ". If a breathing and a circumflex occur together, the circumflex is placed over the top of the breathing: thus, or . A breathing is placed in front of a vowel which is a capital letter. Thus, the breathing is placed: 
(a) over the top of an initial vowel if it is a small letter. Examples: ἰδού, ἴδε, ὁδός, ἕκτος 
(b) in front of an initial vowel if it is a capital letter. Examples: Ἀδάμ ("Adam"), Ὅτι ("Hoti"). 
(c) over the second letter of an initial diphthong, whether or not the first letter is a capital. Examples: εἰς ("eis"), οἶκος ("oikos"), οἰκία ("Oikia"). 
(d) over the first letter of two vowels which do not make a diphthong, or in front if the first letter is a capital. Examples: ἑόρακα ("he-oraka"), Ἐᾶτε ("E-a-te"). 
1.29 THE BREATHINGS RULE: Automatically note the breathing when you come to words beginning with a vowel, and be sure that you NEVER drop your aitches but always pronounce a rough breathing when it occurs, and always put the correct breathing over an initial vowel or diphthong when writing Greek words. 
1.3 PRONUNCIATION GUIDE 
1.31 TURN NOW to Appendix #A1 and work through the Pronunciation Guide and exercises which are given there. 
1.32 These exercises provide a progressive introduction to the recognition and pronunciation of all the letters of the Greek Alphabet. The exercises will be found helpful both for Greek classes and for students learning Greek on their own. 
1.33 After practising these exercises, return to this point in the Lesson. 

16 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
1.4 THE ALPHABET:
GREEK/ENGLISH EQUIVALENTS, WITH PRONUNCIATION KEYWORDS 
1.41 


<table>
 <tr><th>GREEK</th><th>ENGLISH</th><th>GREEK</th></tr>
 <tr>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><th>NAME</th><th>LETTER</th></tr>
 <tr>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><td>ἄλφα</td><td>alpha</td></tr>
 <tr><td>βῆτα</td><td>beta</td></tr>
 <tr><td>γάμμα</td><td>gamma</td></tr>
 <tr><td>δέλτα</td><td>delta</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἔ ψιλόν</td><td>epsilon</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ζῆτα</td><td>zeta</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἦτα</td><td>eta</td></tr>
 <tr><td>θῆτα</td><td>theta</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἰῶτα</td><td>iota</td></tr>
 <tr><td>κάππα</td><td>kappa</td></tr>
 <tr><td>λάμβδα</td><td>lambda</td></tr>
 <tr><td>μῦ</td><td>mu</td></tr>
 <tr><td>νῦ</td><td>nu</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ξῖ</td><td>xi</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ὂ μικρόν</td><td>omicron</td></tr>
 <tr><td>πῖ</td><td>pi</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ῥῶ</td><td>rho</td></tr>
 <tr><td>σίγμα</td><td>sigma</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ταῦ</td><td>tau</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ὖ ψιλόν</td><td>upsilon</td></tr>
 <tr><td>φῖ</td><td>phi</td></tr>
 <tr><td>χῖ</td><td>khi</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ψῖ</td><td>psi</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ὦ μέγα</td><td>omega</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><td>α</td><td>Α</td></tr>
 <tr><td>β</td><td>Β</td></tr>
 <tr><td>γ</td><td>Γ</td></tr>
 <tr><td>δ</td><td>Δ</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ε</td><td>Ε</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ζ</td><td>Ζ</td></tr>
 <tr><td>η</td><td>Η</td></tr>
 <tr><td>θ</td><td>Θ</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ι</td><td>Ι</td></tr>
 <tr><td>κ</td><td>Κ</td></tr>
 <tr><td>λ</td><td>Λ</td></tr>
 <tr><td>μ</td><td>Μ</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ν</td><td>Ν</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ξ</td><td>Ξ</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ο</td><td>Ο</td></tr>
 <tr><td>π</td><td>Π</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ρ</td><td>Ρ</td></tr>
 <tr><td>σ,ς</td><td>Σ</td></tr>
 <tr><td>τ</td><td>Τ</td></tr>
 <tr><td>υ</td><td>Υ</td></tr>
 <tr><td>φ</td><td>Φ</td></tr>
 <tr><td>χ</td><td>Χ</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ψ</td><td>Ψ</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ω</td><td>Ω</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 </tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><th>EQUIV.</th><th>KEYWORD</th></tr>
 <tr><td>a</td><td>along, father</td></tr>
 <tr><td>b</td><td>boil</td></tr>
 <tr><td>g,ng</td><td>got, along</td></tr>
 <tr><td>d</td><td>feud</td></tr>
 <tr><td>e</td><td>panguin</td></tr>
 <tr><td>dz</td><td>adze</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ē</td><td>there</td></tr>
 <tr><td>th</td><td>throw</td></tr>
 <tr><td>i</td><td>in, ski</td></tr>
 <tr><td>k</td><td>ski</td></tr>
 <tr><td>l</td><td>boil</td></tr>
 <tr><td>m</td><td>men</td></tr>
 <tr><td>n</td><td>in</td></tr>
 <tr><td>x</td><td>six</td></tr>
 <tr><td>o</td><td>got</td></tr>
 <tr><td>p</td><td>put</td></tr>
 <tr><td>r</td><td>throw</td></tr>
 <tr><td>s</td><td>six</td></tr>
 <tr><td>t</td><td>put</td></tr>
 <tr><td>u</td><td>put(truth)</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ph</td><td>photograph</td></tr>
 <tr><td>kh/ch</td><td>loch, Bach</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ps</td><td>glimpse</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ō</td><td>throw</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><th>EXAMPLES</th><th>MEANING</th></tr>
 <tr><td>ἄνθρωπος</td><td>man, human being</td></tr>
 <tr><td>βάλλω</td><td>I throw</td></tr>
 <tr><td>γῆ</td><td>earth, land</td></tr>
 <tr><td>δύναμις</td><td>power, ability</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἔργον</td><td>work, deed, action</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ζωή</td><td>life</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἡμέρα</td><td>day</td></tr>
 <tr><td>θεός</td><td>God</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἴδιος</td><td>one's own</td></tr>
 <tr><td>καρδία</td><td>heart</td></tr>
 <tr><td>λόγος</td><td>word, message</td></tr>
 <tr><td>μόνος</td><td>only, alone</td></tr>
 <tr><td>νόμος</td><td>law</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ξύλον</td><td>wood, tree</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ὅλος</td><td>whole, complete</td></tr>
 <tr><td>προφήτης</td><td>prophet</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ῥῆμα</td><td>word, object</td></tr>
 <tr><td>σάββατον</td><td>sabbath</td></tr>
 <tr><td>τόπος</td><td>place</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ὑποκριτής</td><td>hypocrite</td></tr>
 <tr><td>φωνή</td><td>voice, sound</td></tr>
 <tr><td>χρόνος</td><td>time</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ψυχή</td><td>soul, life</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ὥρα</td><td>hour, time</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 </tr>
</table>


* Common Greek words — see #0.3.
1.42 The Greek sounds represented by the letters are called phonemes. That is to say, phonemes are to speech what letters are to writing. (Phonemes are described in detail in #E1 and #E2.) 
1.43 The third letter of the alphabet, gamma, pronounced "g" as in "got", also has a second function in Greek. When the letter nu, "n", occurs in front of any of the phonemes made at the palate (the phonemes γ, κ, χ, and ξ), it is pronounced "ng" and is written using the letter gamma instead of nu. Thus ἐγχρίω consists of ἐν joined with χρίω, and is pronounced "eng-chrio". (In English, "n" in front of a palatal is also pronounced as "ng", as in "anger", "ankle", "anchor", "anxious", "anxiety".) When gamma is used in this way, and given this pronunciation, it is actually quite a different letter from "normal" gamma. When it is to be pronounced in this way it can be called enga (ἔγγα).¹¹ Practise pronouncing these examples of the use of enga: 
ἐγγύς, ὄγκος, ἄγγελος, ἀγκάλη, ἄγκυρα, ἐγγίζω, ἐγχρίω, ἐγκρίνω, τυγχάνω, ἐγγράφω, ἐγκακέω, ἐγκαλέω, ἐγκάθετος, ἐλέγχω, σάλπιγξ, φάραγξ
1.44 When the letter iota begins a word and is followed by a vowel — as indeed it is in its own name — then it is pronounced as "y". So iota, the name of this letter, is pronounced "yo-ta" (rhyming with "quota"). Ἰησοῦς, "Jesus", is pronounced "Yair-sous", rhyming with "their use". Similarly, upsilon, υ, is pronounced as "w" when it comes in front of a vowel (as in υἱός, son). 

Because they have some of the functions of a vowel and some of those of a consonant, these two phonemes, and rho, ρ, can be described as semi-vowels. 
1.45 When the letter rho begins a word, it is written ῥ, "rh", but the "h" should not be pronounced. (Compare the "silent h" at the beginning of English words which have come from the Greek, such as "rhapsody", "rhetoric", "rheumatism", "rhyme", "rhythm", and numerous others.) If a double rho occurs in a word it may be found with a smooth breathing written over the first rho and a rough breathing over the second one. For example, ἐρρήθησαν (Galatians 3:16) may sometimes (especially in older editions of the Greek text) be found printed as ἐῤῥήθησαν. 
1.46 NOTE: The syllables of a Greek word are pronounced so as to begin with a consonant. Thus γράφω is not pronounced γράφ-ω but γρά-φω. Similarly ὅλος is not pronounced ὅλ-ος but ὅ-λος. Break up other words in the same way. Where there are two consonants between vowels, start the syllable with the second one, thus: ἄν-θρω-πος, ὑπο-κρι-τής. Similarly divide up the pronunciation of a double letter; thus ἔξω is pronounced ἔκ-σω. 
1.47 LEARN: (a) The Greek alphabet (from the Greek column), in the correct order, with the correct pronunciation, as shown by the English keywords. 
(b) The English keyword(s) for each letter. Each keyword contains the English equivalent of the Greek letter you are learning, and the keyword gives that letter the pronunciation that it has in Greek. Knowing these keywords can assist you greatly with your pronunciation in the initial stages of your study of Greek. 
1.48 NOTE: When going through the Vocabulary of each new Lesson, always carefully pronounce each word aloud. When commencing work on each Selection from the Greek New Testament, read aloud that Selection in Greek first of all. This care about pronunciation, and practising reading out aloud, is exceedingly important. It is no harder to get into the habit of pronouncing a word correctly instead of incorrectly. An incorrect pronunciation will very easily mislead you into an incorrect spelling and possible confusion about words and forms. On the other hand, if you harness your eye and ear together, so that they operate in conjunction, each will aid and reinforce the other in the learning process. In consequence you will learn your work more quickly, more effectively, and more permanently. 
1.5 VOWELS 
1.51 Vowels are sounds (phonemes) that you make by the shape that you give to your mouth while you are breathing out air from your lungs. 
1.52 There are seven vowels in the Greek alphabet, two of which are short, two of which are long, and three of which may be either short or long. These vowels (with their keywords) are: 

<table>
 <tr>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Short Vowels</td>
 <td>Long Vowels</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>α (along)</td>
 <td>α (father)</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>ε (penguin)</td>
 <td>η (there)</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>ι (in)</td>
 <td>ι (ski)</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>ο (got)</td>
 <td>ω (throw)</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>υ (put)</td>
 <td>υ (truth)</td>
 </tr>
</table>

1.53 Short vowels followed by ρ and a consonant can be pronounced as in English. Thus: Short α followed by ρ can be pronounced as English "ar", as in καρδία, "kar-dia". Short ε followed by ρ can be pronounced as English "er", as in ἔργον, "er-gon". Short ο followed by ρ can be pronounced as English "or", as in ὀργή, pronounced "or-gair". 
1.54 Two vowels, ι and υ, can combine with each of the short vowels and with each other into a vowel-pair which has a distinct pronunciation, and which is called a diphthong (pronounced diff-thong). There are thus these seven diphthongs: 

<table>
<tr>
 <td>DIPHTHONG </td>
 <td>KEYWORD </td>
 <td>GREEK EXAMPLES </td>
 <td>MEANINGS </td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>αι</td>
 <td>aisle</td>
 <td>*αἰών</td>
 <td>age, world</td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>ει</td>
 <td>eight</td>
 <td>*εἰρήνη</td>
 <td>peace</td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>οι</td>
 <td>boil</td>
 <td>*οἶκος</td>
 <td>house, household</td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>υι</td>
 <td>penguin/suite</td>
 <td>*υἱός</td>
 <td>son</td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>αυ</td>
 <td>Strauss</td>
 <td>*αὐτός</td>
 <td>he, self, same</td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>ευ</td>
 <td>feud</td>
 <td>*εὐαγγέλιον</td>
 <td>gospel</td>
</tr>
<tr>
 <td>ου</td>
 <td>group</td>
 <td>*οὐρανός</td>
 <td>heaven</td>
</tr>
</table>


NOTE: υι is pronounced as in "penguin" if ι is short, and as in "suite" if ι is long — as is usually the case. However, this diphthong is not very common. 
1.55 Practise your pronunciation of the Greek diphthongs with these words: 
(a) καί, ναί, παῖς, καιρός, χαίρω, δίκαιος, παιδίον, δαιμόνιον, αἰών, αἷμα, αἰτέω 
(b) εἰ, εἰς, εἷς, δεῖ, εἴτε, εἶδον, εἶπον, εἰμί, τρεῖς, ἡμεῖς, πλείων, πείθω, σπείρω, εἰρήνη, ἐκεῖνος, ἀλήθεια 
(c) οἶδα, οἶκος, οἰκία, λοιπός, ποιμήν, πλοῖον, κατοικέω, ποιέω, ὅμοιος, ἀνοίγω 
(d) υἱός, λελυκυῖα 
(e) αὐτός, αὐτή, αὕτη, αὐταί, αὗται, αὐγή, αὐλός, αὔριον, αὐξάνω, σεαυτοῦ, σταυρόω, θησαυρός 
(f) εὖ, εὐθύς, πιστεύω, βασιλεύς, εὐαγγέλιον, δεύτερος, ψεῦδος, εὐλογέω, εὐχαριστέω, εὑρίσκω, εὐαγγελίζω, πνεῦμα, γραμματεύς 
(g) οὐ, οὐκ, οὐχ, οὐχί, οὖν, οὐδέ, οὐκέτι, οὐρανός, οὗτος, ποῦ, πούς, νοῦς, ἰδού, ὅπου, δοῦλος, ἀκούω, ἐξουσία 
1.56 IOTA SUBSCRIPT: The long vowels (α, η, and ω) can also combine with ι, and the iota is then written subscript, i.e. below the main vowel, as ᾳ, ῃ and ῳ. A vowel is pronounced the same with iota subscript as without it. NOTE: As with the breathing, iota subscript is part of the spelling of a word and must never be omitted in writing a word in which it occurs. 
1.57 OTHER VOWELS TOGETHER: In all other cases where vowels occur together they do not form a vowel combination but are each pronounced separately; e.g., ὄγδοος, "eighth"; κύριε, "sir"; Βηθλέεμ, "Bethlehem". (Notice that it is not possible to use a rough breathing in the middle of a word to give an "h" sound, so the "h" of "Bethlehem" is simply omitted.) 
1.58 LEARN the seven diphthongs, together with the English keyword(s) for each diphthong. 
Each keyword contains the English letters corresponding with those in the diphthong you are learning, and the keyword gives that diphthong the pronunciation that it has in Greek. (There is 
ONE: THE GREEK LANGUAGE 19 
actually no English word which contains the right pronunciation of "au" corresponding to the Greek, so the name "Strauss" has been used because most people will know of this composer. The αυ sound of Greek is usually written in English as "ou", as in "cloud", or "ow", as in "crowd".) Knowing these keywords can assist you greatly with your pronunciation in the initial stages of your study of Greek. 
1.59 It is essential to become completely fluent as quickly as possible in reading the Greek letters, and pronouncing words correctly. The following passage from Luke 14:27-28 should be read and reread out aloud until correct pronunciation is automatic, and complete fluency is attained — it contains all 24 letters of the Greek alphabet: 
Καὶ ὅστις οὐ βαστάζει τὸν σταυρὸν αὐτοῦ καὶ ἔρχεται ὀπίσω μου, οὐ δύναται εἶναί μου μαθητής. Τίς γὰρ ἐξ ὑμῶν, ὁ θέλων πύργον οἰκοδομῆσαι, οὐχὶ πρῶτον καθίσας ψηφίζει τὴν δαπάνην, εἰ ἔχει τὰ εἰς ἀπαρτισμόν; 
1.6 CONSONANTS 
1.61 Consonants are sounds (phonemes) that you make by interfering with the smooth flow of air from your lungs when you breathe out. Consonants can be classified according to how you interfere with the flow of escaping air (this is called the manner of articulation of the consonant), and where you interfere with the flow of escaping air (called the place of articulation). 
1.62 There are three possible places of articulation: at the lips (producing sounds that are called labials), or at the teeth, using the tongue (producing dentals), or at the palate, again using the tongue (producing palatals). 
1.63 The manner of articulation can be either to stop the flow of air altogether for a moment (producing a stop consonant) or to restrict the flow of air without stopping it, causing friction while the sound continues (and thus producing the continuants). 
1.64 The stop consonants can be made either with or without the use of your vocal chords, so that they will be either voiced or unvoiced. It is also possible to put your mouth into position for making one of the stop consonants and to make an "h" sound there: this will give you three aspirated sounds, one aspirate for each "place" position in the mouth. The three Greek aspirates were originally stop consonants. Consequently, when they interact with following phonemes (sounds) they usually behave like (and therefore are grouped with and treated as) stops. 
1.65 The continuants can be released either through the mouth or the nose. If the sound is released through the nose, this produces the three sounds called nasal liquids, one for each of the three "place" positions, labial (at the lips, giving "m"), palatal (at the palate, giving "ng"), and dental (at the back of the teeth, giving "n"). 
1.66 There are also two "liquid" sounds which can be made in the mouth, the oral liquids ("1" and "r"). Rho, ρ, is both an oral liquid and a semi-vowel — at times it functions as a consonant, and at times as a vowel. It is therefore listed twice in the following table. 
1.67 Other oral phonemes one can make are a hissing noise (called a sibilant, the "s" sound, if unvoiced, and the "z" sound, if voiced). A sibilant can be added to a stop consonant in each "place" position: which will give you the three double consonants, ψ, ξ, and ζ — but note that two of these, ψ and ξ are unvoiced, and ξ is voiced. 
1.68 Zeta, ζ, functioned in New Testament times as "z", the voiced equivalent of sigma, σ (for example, in transliterations from Hebrew such as Ναζαρέτ, "Nazareth"), and also (more frequently) as the double letter "dz". It is listed in the following table in two places: as a sibilant (the voiced equivalent of σ) and again as a dental in the "double letter" line, since it functions in the language in both ways. In early times zeta had two pronunciations, as zd, and as dz, reflecting the two sources from which it developed. Of these alternatives the pronunciation adopted and recommended here is dz, paralleling the labial double letter ψ and the palatal ξ.⁷
1.69 The Greek consonants can be set out in a table which shows their manner and place of articulation and all their other features.

 <table>
 <tr><td>MANNER OF ARTICULATION</td><td>  </td><td>PLACE OF ARTICULATION</td></tr>
 <tr>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
 <tr><td>STOPS: </td><td>Unvoiced</td></tr>
 <tr><td> </td><td>Voiced</td></tr>
 <tr><td> </td><td>Aspirated</td></tr>
 <tr><td> </td><td>Double</td></tr>
 <tr><td>CONTINUANTS: </td><td>Nasal Liquids</td></tr>
 <tr><td> </td><td>Oral Liquids</td></tr>
 <tr><td> </td><td>Semi-vowels</td></tr>
 <tr><td> </td><td>Sibilants</td></tr>
 <tr><td>SPECIAL: </td><td> </td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 <td></td>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><th>Labials</th><th>Palatals</th><th>Dentals</th></tr>
 <tr><td>π</td><td>κ</td><td>τ</td></tr>
 <tr><td>β</td><td>γ (gamma)</td><td>δ</td></tr>
 <tr><td>φ</td><td>χ</td><td>θ</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ψ</td><td>ξ</td><td>ζ</td></tr>
 <tr><td>μ</td><td>γ</td><td>ν</td></tr>
 <tr><td></td><td></td><td>ρ,λ</td></tr>
 <tr><td>υ</td><td>ι</td><td>ρ</td></tr>
 <tr><td></td><td></td><td>σ,ζ</td></tr>
 <tr><td>πτ</td><td>σσ</td><td></td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 </tr>
 </table>

The "special" double combinations πτ and σσ are included here for the sake of completeness, and will be explained in due course. At this stage it is only necessary to note them. 
NOTE: SEEK TO UNDERSTAND this table now, and why the different phonemes are listed in a particular classification — you will frequently find it very helpful to know which consonants are labials, palatals and dentals. We will refer back to it from time to time because the place of articulation affects how words behave when different endings etc. are added to them. 
1.7 WRITING 
1.71 WRITING GREEK: The written form of Greek at which you should aim is a style similar to that of the Greek printed characters, but without any of its ornateness. Aim at simplicity, clarity, and ease of recognition — avoid frills and flourishes. Practice writing the cursive (lower-case) characters as they are given here: 

ONE: THE GREEK LANGUAGE 21 
1.72 NOTE THAT: β, δ, ζ, θ, λ, and ξ, and these only, are double-height lowercase letters (though the strokes of φ and ψ go to double height); THAT the two strokes of χ cross on or just above the line; THAT the tails of ζ, ξ, and ς go below the line, as do the stems or legs of β, γ, η, μ, ρ, φ, χ and ψ. All capital letters are of uniform double height, and sit upon the line. 
1.73 TRANSCRIBING INTO ENGLISH: English words derived from Greek are usually spelt with the corresponding English equivalent letters. But note that Greek chi (χ) comes into English as "ch" (as in "Christ") and not as "x", which is ξ. When upsilon (υ) is long it comes into English as "u"; but usually it is short and transliterates as the vowel "y" (as in "hypocrite"). The diphthong ου comes into English as "u" (as in "uranus", "Luke", and "Jesus"). The diphthong ευ is still "eu" in English before a consonant ("Eucharist"), but "ev" before a vowel ("evangelist"). The Greek γγ (i.e. enga plus gamma — see #1.43) becomes "ng" in English ("angel"); κ comes across into English as "k" when it is taken directly from the Greek, and as "c" when it has come via Latin. Be careful to distinguish the Greek capitals Ρ, Χ, Η and Υ from their English look-alikes. 
1.74 THE WORD ENDINGS RULE: All Greek words end either in a vowel or else in ν, ρ or ς (including ψ and ξ). The only exceptions are the words ἐκ ("out of") and οὐκ/οὐχ ("not"), which are always pronounced with the word which follows; and foreign proper names (for example, Ἀβραάμ, Βηθλέεμ). Whenever the inflectional changes that take place in a word bring any other consonant to the end of that word, then that consonant is dropped. 
1.75 MOVABLE NU AND MOVABLE SIGMA: Numbers of words which end in -εν or -ιν may drop the -ν, especially when followed by a word beginning with a consonant, without any punctuation between these two words. (Thus: the Greek word for "is" can be written ἐστίν or ἐστί.) This -ν is known as "movable nu". Similarly, ἐξ, "out of", and three other less common words drop their final sigma phoneme before a following consonant. That is, they have a "movable sigma": ἐξ thus becomes ἐκ before a consonant. (Note that is made up of the amalgamation of κ and ς.) 
1.8 PUNCTUATION 
1.81 PUNCTUATION MARKS: There are six punctuation marks in Greek: 
(a) , The same as the English comma. 
(b) . The same as the English full stop, or, period. 
(c) · The high point — similar to the English semicolon and colon. 
(d) ; The Greek question mark — do not confuse this with our semicolon. 
(e) ' The Greek apostrophe, similar to the smooth breathing in appearance, which is used (as in English, in words such as "can't", "he's") to indicate an elision, that is, where a letter has dropped out. Its use will be explained in due course. Examples: δ’ ἂν (Mark 3:29) for δὲ ἂν; ἀπ’ αὐτοῦ (Mark 1:42) for ἀπὸ αὐτοῦ; ἀλλ’ ὁ (John 1:33) for ἀλλὰ ὁ. 
(f) ¨ The diaeresis, which is used (as in English, in a word such as "naïve") where two vowels which normally combine to form a diphthong are to be pronounced separately. For example, ἀϊδίοις, βαΐον, Ἠσαΐας, ἰχθύϊ, προϋπῆρχεν. 
1.82 LATE USE: This punctuation was NOT used in the earliest, uncial, manuscripts of the Greek New Testament, where in fact the practice of the time was to run all the words together without a space between them. Punctuation was later incorporated in cursive writing and is used today in all printed editions of the Greek New Testament.'² NOTE that as there was no punctuation in the original manuscripts, this has been added by later editors. 

22 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
1.83 Where Knowing Greek Makes a Difference: If you know Greek, you will therefore be aware that the punctuation in the printed text of the Greek New Testament reflects the judgement of the editors. Therefore at a number of points it is a matter of interpretation as to whether a particular phrase, clause, or sentence is a question or a statement. For example, are Romans 8:33b and 8:34b statements or questions? — the Greek itself does not indicate which it is, the only difference being one of punctuation. Romans 8:33-34 reads (NRSV), "Who will bring any charge against God's elect? It is God who justifies. Who is to condemn? It is Christ Jesus, who died, yes, who was raised, who is at the right hand of God, who indeed intercedes for us." But the second part of each verse could very well be taken as a question (the NRSV gives this possibility as a marginal reading for verse 34). Seeing these sentences as being questions is in line with the whole of the rest of the context of 8:31-35, all of the other sentences of which are taken as questions by translators. Taking these verses this way underlines the impossibility of the thought that the One who justifies, the One who saves and intercedes for us, would bring a charge against us or condemn us: "Who will bring any charge against God's elect? Will God do this, when he is the One who justifies? Who is to condemn? Is it Christ Jesus [who will do this when he is the One] who died, yes, who was raised, who is at the right hand of God, who indeed intercedes for us?" 
1.84 DIRECT SPEECH: Greek has no quotation marks. How then can we know when someone's actual words are being quoted? The beginning of direct speech is usually indicated by the use of an initial capital (see #1.16). Additionally, to indicate the beginning of direct speech the author may use the word ὅτι (which is thus equivalent to English opening inverted commas). But this word also means "that" and "because"; when an author uses it to indicate the beginning of direct speech, we will recognize this because in our printed edition of the New Testament (and in this present book) the next word will begin with a capital letter. The end of direct speech is often indicated by the words which follow it being ὁ δὲ ..., which mean, "and he ..." (referring to the other person in the conversation); and similarly ἡ δὲ ... ("and she . ..") for the feminine and οἱ δὲ ... ("and they") for the plural. But in many places in the New Testament there remain uncertainties as to whether something is a quotation or direct speech, or not, and as to where direct speech ends. [Two examples from John 3: it is uncertain whether what Jesus is saying to Nicodemus concludes at verse 13 (as in the Good News Bible), or verse 15 (as in the RSV) or verse 21 (as in the NIV, NRSV, and others); it is also uncertain whether what John the Baptist is saying concludes at verse 30 (GNB, RSV, NRSV) or verse 36 (Phillips, Jerusalem, NW).] 
1.9 GREEK WORDS 
1.91 Greek words consist of two kinds, the "changing" and the "unchanging". The "unchanging" words remain the same every time they are used. These words have the grammatical names (which will be explained next Lesson) "conjunctions", "prepositions", "adverbs", "particles", "negatives", and "the infinitive". The "changing" words take different forms to indicate all the different kinds of grammatical information which the text is telling us. "Changing" words are "nouns", "pronouns", "adjectives", "verbs", "participles", and "the article" (these are all called "parts of speech", and these various terms will be explained next Lesson). 
1.92 Many Greek words consist of two or more parts or segments, with each segment of the word conveying a particular "piece" or "unit" of information. Each such segment of a word is called a morph¹³, and a morph is described and named according to the information that it gives. Thus the "lexical part" of an inflected word (that is, the part that carries the lexical or dictionary meaning of the word) can be described as the lexical morph, or lexal¹⁴. The changes which take place in a word are called inflection. An inflected word consists of a lexal together with various "additional" morphs (technically known as affixes) which give the reader grammatical information. The lexal generally remains the same in the different forms of an inflected word, while the affixes change 
ONE: THE GREEK LANGUAGE 23 
from one use of the word to the next. A set of these inflected forms is a flexion¹⁵. An affix may be added in front of a lexal (a prefix), into a lexal (an infix) or at the end of a lexal (a suffix). A suffix will frequently be composed of several morphs, each of which conveys different information about a word's grammatical meaning. The last morph of a word is often called its "ending". 
1.93 For example θεός (see #1.41) consists of the lexal θε-, which carries the word's lexical meaning of "God", and -ος its ending, which indicates its grammatical information (in this case, that this form is nominative singular, the form used when the word is the subject of a sentence). With a different ending the word will have a different grammatical meaning — thus the form θεοῦ means "of God" or "God's" (that is, the ending -ου indicates the grammatical information that is technically called genitive singular). "Christ" is Χριστός, so "of Christ" or "Christ's" is Χριστοῦ). Question: "world" is κόσμος; so what is the Greek for "world's"? 
1.94 However, for feminine words such as ζωή, "life", the ending meaning "the subject of a sentence" is -η and the ending of the genitive singular is -ης. Similarly for other nouns such as γῆ, "earth"; φωνή, "voice"; ψυχή, "soul" (see #1.41). And being feminine, these will all take the feminine form of the word "the" with them. Question: what will be the meaning of ζωῆς?
1.95 Verbs can have even greater variety in their forms. The most frequently-occurring verb is *εἰμί (it is used almost 2,500 times in the Greek New Testament). This is the flexion for the verb εἰμί, together with the emphatic pronouns which can be used with these verb forms: 

 <table>
 <tr><th> </th><th>Present Tense of the Verb "to be"</th><th>Emphatic Pronouns</th></tr>
 <tr>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><td>S</td><td>1   </td></tr>
 <tr><td></td><td>2</td></tr>
 <tr><td></td><td>3</td></tr>
 <tr><td>P</td><td>1</td></tr>
 <tr><td></td><td>2</td></tr>
 <tr><td></td><td>3</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><td>εἰμί</td><td>  I am</td></tr>
 <tr><td>εἶ</td><td>  you (singular) are</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἐστί(ν)</td><td>  [he/she/it] is</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἐσμέν</td><td>  we are</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἐστέ</td><td>  you (plural) are</td></tr>
 <tr><td>εἰσί(ν)</td><td>  [they] are</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><td>ἐγώ</td><td>  I (emphatic)</td></tr>
 <tr><td>σύ</td><td>  you (singular) (emphatic)</td></tr>
 <tr><td>αὐτός</td><td>  he (emphatic)</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἡμεῖς</td><td>  we (emphatic)</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ὑμεῖς</td><td>  you (plural) (emphatic)</td></tr>
 <tr><td>αὐτοί</td><td>  they (emphatic)</td></tr>
 </table>

 </td></tr>
 </table>

1.96 NOTE the two forms which have nu in brackets: this is movable nu (see #1.75), which may be found either included or omitted in the spelling when these forms are used in a sentence. The forms are to be learnt with the nu.
1.97 Using these forms and the Vocabulary which was introduced earlier (in #1.41 and #1.54) it is now possible for us to make up, or to translate, many Greek sentences. Thus "He is a man of God" will be ἐστὶν ἄνθρωπος θεοῦ. Similarly, "It is Christ's work" is ἐστὶν ἔργον Χριστοῦ (note that the genitive Χριστός), "Christ's", will in Greek come after the word [ἔργον, "work"] that it refers to). And σὺ εἶ ὑποκριτής means You (singular, emphatic) are a hypocrite"; and ἡμεῖς ἐσμὲν οἶκος θεοῦ is "We (emphatic) are God's household"; εἰμὶ προφήτης θεοῦ is "I am God's prophet" or "I am a prophet of God"; ἐστὶν δύναμις Χριστοῦ is "It is Christ's power".
1.98 Much of the work of the next nine Lessons will consist of learning the different types of inflection that can occur in Greek, and which words take one kind of inflection or the other, and the difference that is made to the meaning of a word by inflecting it, and how the words are assembled into sentences to express the author's meaning. The various morphs will all be identified and their functions explained. But if you can see how these short sentences in #1.97 are to be translated from Greek into English (or vice versa), then you are ready to try your hand at translating some actual sentences from the Greek New Testament. 

24 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
ASSIGNMENTS ON LESSON ONE 
1.. APPENDIX: READ CAREFULLY through Appendix #A0 and #A1. 
2.. ALPHABET AND DIPHTHONGS: (a) LEARN the Greek alphabet (#1.41): the names of the Greek letters, their order, their appearance, and their pronunciation. (The best way of doing this is to read down the column of the Greek names of the letters of the alphabet, saying them aloud, and then close your eyes and recite the names of the letters in order. Open your eyes to recheck any that you forget. Repeat this exercise, writing out the Greek letters. Spend five minutes each day going over them out loud, first of all reading them, and then saying them again with your eyes closed. Repeat until you can recite the whole alphabet without looking, and with confidence — and accuracy.) (b) LEARN the diphthongs (#1.54). (c) LEARN the keyword(s) (#1.41, #1.54) for the sound of each letter and diphthong. 
3.. PRONUNCIATION: NOTE the Greek words in the columns "Greek examples" (#1.41 and #1.54) — PRACTISE reading them out aloud, using the keywords as necessary to confirm that you have the correct pronunciation. WORK OUT the pronunciation of Luke 14:27-28 (#1.59). 
4.. WRITING: WRITE OUT in your Workbook, to hand in to your class teacher (to help you with your writing) the Greek words in the columns "Greek examples" (#1.41 and #1.54). (Ignore accents, but remember that you must put the correct smooth or rough breathing on initial vowels and diphthongs.)
5.. FLEXIONS FOR LEARNING: Your first flexion to learn is the Present Tense of the verb "to be", and the emphatic pronouns which can be used with these forms (#1.95). (The best way of doing this is to spend five minutes saying the forms each day. First of all read through the forms out loud, and then say them again aloud with your eyes closed. Repeat this pattern until you can say them without looking, and with confidence — and accuracy.)
6.. WORKBOOK: ANSWER THE QUESTIONS in your Workbook about what has been covered in Lesson One.
7.. VOCABULARY CARDS: Prepare a set of Vocabulary Cards for this Lesson. Purchase a packet of small system cards and write on the cards the words of the Greek Examples (#1.41 and #1.54), and the emphatic pronouns (#1.95). Write one word per card, the Greek word on one side, and the English meaning(s) on the other. In the top lefthand corner of each side of each card write 1 (meaning, a word introduced in Lesson One). Sort your cards into Greek alphabetical order. Use them whenever you need to check on a word you have not remem¬bered which is used in a Greek Sentence.
8. TRANSLATION EXERCISES: Translate the following Selections from the Greek New Testament, and the English-into-Greek sentences. (Some of these exercises can be done in class at the end of the Lesson, to assist students in seeing how to undertake translation, and the balance set for homework before next class. Or they can all be set for homework.)
VOCABULARY
To translate the following sentences you will need to use the forms of the verb "to be" (#1.95), together with the words on your Vocabulary Cards, from the "Greek Examples" in #1.41 and #1.54 and the emphatic pronouns (#1.95). Other words that will be needed are given below, next to the first sentence in which they are used: make out Vocabulary Cards for each of these new words as you come to them.
ONE: THE GREEK LANGUAGE 25 
NOTE: προφήτης means either "prophet" or "a prophet"; more on this next Lesson (#2.32). 

ALSO NOTE: the word "the" has these forms in these sentences: 

 <table>
 <tr><td></td><td></td><th>Masculine</th><th>Feminine</th><th>Neuter</th></tr>
 <tr><th>Singular</th><th>Nominative</th><td>ὁ </td><td>ἡ </td><td>τό</td></tr>
 <tr><td></td><th>Genitive</th><td>τοῦ</td><td>τῆς</td><td>τοῦ</td></tr>
 </table>

A. SELECTIONS FROM THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
(NOTE: These are selected extracts from the Greek New Testament verses listed; only a part of the verse is being set for you to translate at this stage.) 

<table>
 <tr><th></th><th>SELECTIONS</th><th>ADDITIONAL VOCABULARY</th></tr>
 <tr><td>A1.</td><td>οὗτός ἐστιν ὁ υἱὸς τοῦ θεοῦ. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 1:34)</td><td>*οὗτος: this, this man;</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A2.</td><td>ἐσμὲν τέκνα θεοῦ. (ΠΡΟΣ ΡΩΜΑΙΟΥΣ 8:16)</td><td>*τέκνα: children;</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A3.</td><td>οὗτός ἐστιν ἀληθῶς ὁ σωτὴρ τοῦ κόσμου. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 4:42)</td><td>ἀληθῶς: truly; σωτήρ:saviour; *κόσμος: world;</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A4.</td><td>Σὺ εἶ ὁ διδάσκαλος τοῦ Ἰσραήλ. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 3:10)</td><td>*διδάσκαλος: teacher; τοῦ Ἰσραήλ: of Israel;</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A5.</td><td> Ῥαββί, σὺ εἶ ὁ υἱὸς τοῦ θεοῦ, σὺ εἶ ὁ βασιλεὺς τοῦ Ἰσραήλ. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 1:49)</td><td>Ῥαββί: Rabbi; [ὁ] *βασιλεύς: [the] king;</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A6.</td><td>Ὑμεῖς δέ ἐστε σῶμα χριστοῦ(ΠΡΟΣ ΚΟΡΙΝΘΙΟΥΣ Α 12:27)</td><td>*σῶμα: body; *χριστός: Christ;</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A7.</td><td>Σὺ τίς εἶ; Οὐκ εἰμὶ ἐγὼ ὁ χριστός. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 1:19-20)</td><td>*τίς: who?; *οὐκ: not;</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A8.</td><td>Ἐγώ εἰμι ὁ ἄρτος τῆς ζωῆς . (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 6:48)</td><td>*ἄρτος: bread, loaf [of bread];</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A9.</td><td>Ἀρχὴ τοῦ εὐαγγελίου Ἰησοῦ χριστοῦ, υἱοῦ τοῦ θεοῦ. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΡΚΟΝ 1:1)</td><td>*ἀρχή: beginning, [the] beginning; *Ἰησοῦς: Jesus;</td></tr>
</table>


B. TRANSLATION FROM ENGLISH INTO GREEK 
(Do not attempt to put accents on the Greek words; do NOT omit breathings.)

 <table>
 <tr><td>B1.</td><td>I (emphatic) am the Christ. (Matthew 24:5)</td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><td>B2.</td><td>Are you (emphatic) the king of the Jews? (Mt 27:11//Mk 15:2//Lk 23:3//Jn 18:33)</td><td>of the Jews: τῶν Ἰουδαίων</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B3.</td><td>This is Jesus the king of the Jews. (Matthew 27:37)</td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><td>B4.</td><td>I (emphatic) am the light of the world. (John 8:12)</td><td>the light: τὸ φῶς</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B5.</td><td>You (plural, emphatic) are the light of the world. (Matthew 5:14)</td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><td>B6.</td><td>You (plural, emphatic) are the salt of the earth. the salt: ra (Matthew 5:13)</td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><td>B7.</td><td>I (emphatic) am the resurrection and the life. (John 11:25)</td><td>the resurrection: ἡ ἀνάστασις; and: *καί</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B8.</td><td>Truly you are God's son. (Matthew 14:33)</td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><td>B9.</td><td>You (emphatic) are a prophet. (John 4:19)</td><td></td></tr>
 </table>

 The Greek New Testament wording for these Sentences is set out in the Student Workbook, page 55. However, a different Greek word order would also be possible for most of them.
* Common Greek words — see #0.3.
<hr>
</div>
<div id="L2" class="Lesson">
LESSON TWO 
THE ARTICLE; THE SECOND DECLENSION; THE PRESENT ACTIVE FLEXION 
2.1 THE GREEK SENTENCE 
2.11 A sentence is, in its simplest form, a statement about something; that is, a topic, and a comment about that topic. The topic, the "something" about which the statement is being made, is called the subject of the sentence. Usually, the subject will be a noun. 
2.12 A NOUN is the name of a person, place, or thing (such as "Jesus", "Bethlehem", "Jordan", etc.), or the term used to refer to a person, place, or thing (such as "man", "town", "river", etc.). 
2.13 Each noun in Greek is of a particular gender. As in English, there are three genders in Greek: masculine, feminine, and neuter — but many things that are neuter in English will be found to be masculine or feminine gender in Greek, and vice versa. That is to say, gender is a grammatical category, and does not always correspond with the category of biological sex. 
2.14 A noun can be either singular or plural ("man"/"men"; "town"/"towns") — this feature is called its number. Greek indicates whether a noun is singular or plural by the kind of ending or suffix which is added to the noun's lexal (sometimes called its stem). In addition to gender and number, a noun has a third grammatical feature, case, to be discussed in the next section. 
2.15 A PRONOUN is a word which can be used in the place of a noun (hence the term "pro-noun"), as in "Jesus calls his own sheep by name, and they follow him." (The words in italics are pronouns.) Pronouns are of various kinds, which we will meet in due course. Some other examples are: "he", "she", "it", "you", "my", "this", "who". (See further: #D6, Pronouns.) 
2.16 THE VERB: In a sentence, the comment about the subject will be made by means of a verb, which states what is happening. A verb can be a lexical verb (one that has "dictionary meaning", like "made" or "states"), or an auxiliary verb such as "will", "be" and "is" in the previous sentence, or "did" in the sentence "Did you not sow good seed in your field?". A lexical verb is a word of "being" or "doing". (See further: #D6, Pronouns.) 
2.17 By the rule of verb agreement, a verb will agree with its subject in number, so that if the subject is plural, the form of the verb will also be plural. Thus, the subject selects or determines the number of the verb. There are two exceptions to this normal rule of verb agreement: 
    (a) the neuter plural subject rule is that in Greek grammar a neuter plural subject takes a singular verb (a small number of exceptions to this rule are found in the New Testament); and 
    (b) the multiple subject rule is that when the verb has a multiple subject (such as "Jesus and his disciples") the verb agrees in number with that part of the multiple subject to which it is closest. We will be considering examples of these exceptions in due course. 
2.18 OTHER PARTS OF SPEECH: (a) A complete sentence can consist of just two words, a subject and a verb: "Jesus wept" (John 11:35). Usually, however, a sentence will contain additional words which give further information about either the subject or the verb. These may be additional nouns or pronouns. Or they may be other "parts of speech" such as the following. 
    (b) Adjectives: words which further describe or identify the noun. For example, in the sentence "You are my beloved son", "my" and "beloved", are adjectives; and in "Did you not sow good seed in your field?", "good" and "your" are adjectives. 
26

TWO: THE ARTICLE; 2ND DECLENSION; PRESENT ACTIVE FLEXION 27 
    (c) Prepositions are words which show the relationship of a noun to the rest of the sentence: Examples are "in" in "in your field" and "before" in "before your face". 
    (d) Adverbs are words which give more details about the action of the verb (which is why they are called adverbs — they add something to the meaning of the verb). 
    (e) A conjunction can join two short sentences together, combining them into one sentence, each part of which is then called a clause, with its own verb and subject. Thus the two sentences "You have faith" and "I have works" can be combined together into one sentence with the conjunction "and": "You have faith and I have works" (James 2:18, L2/B3). In Greek it is common for sentences to commence with a conjunction. 
    (f) Other "parts of speech" include negatives ("no", "not"), and exclamations ("Look!", "Behold"). 
2.19 EXAMPLES: In these sentences, can you identify what part of speech each word is?
    "You are my beloved son." 
    "Did you not sow good seed in your field?" 
    "Behold, I send my messenger before your face." 
2.2 INFLECTED FORMS FOR NOUNS, PRONOUNS, AND ADJECTIVES 
2.21 A noun or pronoun can have different types of relationships to its sentence. Its relationship in a particular sentence will be shown by a preposition or by its case, or by the two together. The case of a noun (that is, its relationship to the rest of the sentence) is indicated by the particular ending which is added to the noun's lexal or stem: in general, each case uses a different ending. 
2.22 There are four main cases in Greek. Thus there are eight possible forms that a noun can have, four for the singular and four for the plural. (Sometimes two forms will in fact have the same ending.) There is also an additional, vocative, form for some words. Thus a noun is made up of a lexal or stem, giving its lexical meaning, and a suffix called the numbercase morph, which carries the grammatical information of the word's number and case. Pronouns and adjectives, similarly, have a set of different forms to indicate number and case, and can have additional sets of forms to differentiate gender as well. 
2.23 "Case" exists in English as in Greek, but in English only the pronoun retains special forms to indicate what its case is. English nouns do have an ending to indicate one particular kind of relationship (the use of "-'s" to show possession), but apart from this they indicate relationship by means of position in a sentence or by the use of prepositions such as "of", "to", and "for".
2.24 The cases in Greek, and their English equivalents, are as set out in the following table. 

<table>
 <tr><th>GREEK</th><th>ENGLISH</th><th>ENGLISH PRONOUNS</th><th>ENGLISH</th></tr>
 <tr>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><th>CASE</th></tr>
 <tr><td>Nominative</td></tr>
 <tr><td>Accusative</td></tr>
 <tr><td>Genitive</td></tr>
 <tr><td>Dative</td></tr>
 <tr><td> </td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><th>CASE</th></tr>
 <tr><td>Subject</td></tr>
 <tr><td>Direct Object</td></tr>
 <tr><td>Possessive </td></tr>
 <tr><td>Indirect Object</td></tr>
 <tr><td> </td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><th>1S</th><th>1P</th><th>2S/P</th><th>3S</th><th>3P</th></tr>
 <tr><td>I </td><td>we </td><td>you </td><td>he/she/it </td><td>they</td></tr>
 <tr><td>me </td><td>us </td><td>you </td><td>him/her/it </td><td>them</td></tr>
 <tr><td>my </td><td>our </td><td>your </td><td>his/her/its</td><td>their</td></tr>
 <tr><td>⎧to me </td><td>to us </td><td>to you </td><td>to him etc.</td><td>to them etc.</td></tr>
 <tr><td>⎩for me </td><td>for us </td><td>for you </td><td>for him etc.</td><td>for them etc.</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 <th>
 <table>
 <tr><th>NOUN</th></tr>
 <tr><td>Before verb</td></tr>
 <tr><td>After verb</td></tr>
 <tr><td>-'s/of ...</td></tr>
 <tr><td>to ... or</td></tr>
 <tr><td>for ...</td></tr>
 </table>
 </th></tr>
</table>


2.25 Pronouns have an additional feature called person. Those pronouns that refer to or include the addressor (the person speaking) are said to be first person (that is, "I", "me", "us", "our", etc.); those relating to the addressee (the person/persons being spoken to or written to) are second person ("you", "your"); and those referring to a person or thing spoken or written about ("he", "her", "its", "them", etc.) are third person. Nouns will usually be third person.


28 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
2.26 The different cases can be seen in these sentences (John 2:16; 16:7): 1. You must not make my Father's house a house of merchandise subject verb possessive possessive direct object direct object possessive nominative verb genitive genitive accusative accusative genitive 2. But I speak the truth to you. conjunction subject verb direct object indirect object conjunction nominative verb accusative dative
Sometimes the word "to" is not needed in English for the indirect object — the second sentence could also be written in English as, "But I tell you the truth." "You" is still the indirect object, and the Greek would be identical for both forms of the English sentence.
2.27 In addition to the four cases mentioned, there is also a fifth case, the vocative, the form of address. The word "sir" is in the vocative case in the sentence, "Sir, we would like to see Jesus" (John 12:21). In Greek the form of the vocative is the same as for the nominative (a small number of important exceptions — which have a special form for the vocative — will be treated separately, as we come to them). 
2.28 As mentioned earlier (#1.92), Greek words show inflection by changes which are made to their endings. For nouns, pronouns, and adjectives these inflected endings, called numbercase endings, indicate the number and case of the word (and, sometimes, its gender also). The set of inflections for a word is called itsflexionls. Where the same pattern of flexion (that is, the same set of endings) is used by numbers of words, then that pattern is called a paradigm (pronounced "parrah-dime"), which means "showing the pattern" (of something). These two terms can be used for the inflections both of nouns (and pronouns and adjectives) and verbs. 
2.29 Noun paradigms which resemble one another can be grouped together on the basis of their "family resemblances". These families of nouns are called declensions, and to set out the pattern of inflected forms for a particular noun is called declining it. There are three noun "families" or declensions in New Testament Greek, with different numbers of "family members" or paradigms in each: the First Declension (D1) with five paradigms ("members"); Second Declension (D2) with three paradigms; and Third Declension (D3) with twenty paradigms. D2.1 means Declension 2, Paradigm 1; and so on. The nouns in the lists of "Greek Examples" (#1.41 and #1.54), and their Declension and Paradigm group, are: 
FIRST DECLENSION (Dl) 

<table>
 <tr><th>D1.2 Feminine Consonant Stem</th><th>D1.1 Feminine ριε Stem</th><th>D1.5 Masc. Consonant Stem</th></tr>
 <tr>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><td>γῆ</td><td>earth</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ζωή</td><td>life</td></tr>
 <tr><td>φωνή</td><td>voice/sound</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ψυχή</td><td>soul/life</td></tr>
 <tr><td>εἰρήνη</td><td>peace</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 <td style="vertical-align:top;">
 <table>
 <tr><td>ἡμέρα</td><td>day</td></tr>
 <tr><td>καρδία</td><td>heart</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ὥρα</td><td>hour/time</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 <td style="vertical-align:top;">
 <table>
 <tr><td>προφήτης</td><td>prophet</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ὑποκριτής</td><td>hypocrite</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 </tr>
</table>

SECOND DECLENSION (D2) 

<table>
 <tr><th>D2.1 Masculine</th><td><table><tr><td>τόπος</td><td>place</td></tr></table></td><th>D2.2 Neuter</th></tr>
 <tr>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><td>ἄνθρωπος</td><td>man, person</td></tr>
 <tr><td>θεός</td><td>God (god)</td></tr>
 <tr><td>λόγος</td><td>word/message</td></tr>
 <tr><td>νόμος</td><td>law</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 <td style="vertical-align:top;">
 <table>
 <tr><td>χρόνος</td><td>time</td></tr>
 <tr><td>οἶκος</td><td>house/household</td></tr>
 <tr><td>υἱός</td><td>son</td></tr>
 <tr><td>οὐρανός</td><td>heaven</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 <td style="vertical-align:top;">
 <table>
 <tr><td>προφήτης</td><td>work</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ὑποκριτής</td><td>gospel</td></tr>
 <tr><td>προφήτης</td><td>wood/tree</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ὑποκριτής</td><td>sabbath</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 </tr>
</table>

THIRD DECLENSION (D3)
<table><tr><th>D3.2 Feminine Vowel Stem</th><td><table><tr><th>D3.14 Masc/Fem -ων Stem</th><td>place</td></tr></table></td><th>D3.9 Neuter Consonant Stem</th></tr>
 <tr>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><td>δύναμις</td><td>power </td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 <td style="vertical-align:top;">
 <table>
 <tr><td>αἰών</td><td>age/world</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 <td style="vertical-align:top;">
 <table>
 <tr><td>ῥῆμα</td><td>word/object</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 </tr>
</table>




TWO: THE ARTICLE; 2ND DECLENSION; PRESENT ACTIVE FLEXION 29 
NOTE that all the words in each Paradigm (flexion group) have the same ending. If you are at all uncertain about what a "noun" is, look carefully at these examples and see (from their English meanings) what kind of words they are.
2.3 THE ARTICLE 
2.31 When Greek wants to indicate that a noun is definite it places a special word, ὁ, in front of it. This word is called the definite article or, more simply, just the article. The closest English equivalent is the word "the". Thus ὁ ἄνθρωπος means "the man" (in the sense of "person", "human being"), a definite man, the particular man, where the addressor or the addressee (or both) know which man is being referred to. 2.32 In contrast ἄνθρωπος means simply "a man" or "man"; and similarly for other Greek nouns. Greek has no indefinite article (English "a" or "an"), though where the Greek wishes to stress the indefiniteness of something it may use 21; "a certain", as in ἄνθρωπος 21g, "a certain man" (Luke 10:30). 
2.33 The article is an inflected word, changing its ending so that it always agrees with the noun to which it refers in number, gender and case. It therefore has a separate form for both singular and plural for each of the four cases, for each of the three genders — this means that it has twenty-four forms in all (see further, #A2.2). (Some of these forms are spelt the same as one another, but most of them are distinctive.) 
2.34 Frequently the article will be used with a person's name (especially if that person has already been mentioned earlier) to indicate that it is the person known to addressor and addressee. Thus, ὁ Ἰωάννης βλέπει τὸν Ἰησοῦν, which is translated as "John sees Jesus"; the articles ὁ in front of "John" (Ἰωάννης) and τόν in front of "Jesus" (Ἰησοῦν) are not translated. 
2.35 The feminine article is a paradigm for the First Declension (D1). This means that the pattern of endings for the feminine article is the same as for one large group of First Declension words, Paradigm D1.2, Feminine Consonant Stem words, a paradigm which includes five words from our lists in #2.29, γῆ, ζωή, φωνή, ψυχή and εἰρήνη. That is to say, the endings of these words decline exactly the same as the feminine article. 
2.36 There is a close similarity between the masculine and neuter flexions of the article and the masculine and neuter paradigms of the Second Declension. These paradigms are given here for ὁ κύριος, "the lord", and τὸ ἔργον, "the work, deed, action", together with the flexion of ὁ Ἰησοῦς, "Jesus". 
2.4 PARADIGMS OF THE ARTICLE AND SECOND DECLENSION NOUNS¹⁶ 
2.40 

<table>
 <tr><th>SINGULAR</th><th>MASC.</th><th>FEM.</th><th>NEUT.</th><th>  D2.1 MASCULINE</th><th>  D2.2 NEUTER</th><th>  D2.3 "JESUS"</th></tr>
 <tr><td>    Nominative</td><td style="text-align: center;">ὁ</td><td style="text-align: center;">ἡ</td><td style="text-align: center;">τό</td><td><table><tr><td style="width: 20px; text-align: right;">ὁ</td><td>κύριος</td></tr></table></td><td><table><tr><td style="width: 20px; text-align: right;">τὸ</td><td>ἔργον</td></tr></table></td><td><table><tr><td style="width: 20px; text-align: right;">ὁ</td><td>Ἰησοῦς</td></tr></table></td></tr>
 <tr><td>    Vocative</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td><table><tr><td style="width: 20px; text-align: right;"></td><td>κύριε</td></tr></table></td><td></td><td></td></tr>

 <tr><td>    Accusative</td><td style="text-align: center;">τόν</td><td style="text-align: center;">τήν</td><td style="text-align: center;">τό</td><td><table><tr><td style="width: 20px; text-align: right;">τὸν</td><td>κύριον</td></tr></table></td><td><table><tr><td style="width: 20px; text-align: right;">τὸ</td><td>ἔργον</td></tr></table></td><td><table><tr><td style="width: 20px; text-align: right;">τὸν</td><td>Ἰησοῦν</td></tr></table></td></tr>
 <tr><td>    Genitive</td><td style="text-align: center;">τοῦ</td><td style="text-align: center;">τῆς</td><td style="text-align: center;">τοῦ</td><td><table><tr><td style="width: 20px; text-align: right;">τοῦ</td><td>κυρίου</td></tr></table></td><td><table><tr><td style="width: 20px; text-align: right;">τοῦ</td><td>ἔργου</td></tr></table></td><td><table><tr><td style="width: 20px; text-align: right;">τοῦ</td><td>Ἰησοῦ</td></tr></table></td></tr>
 <tr><td>    Dative</td><td style="text-align: center;">τῷ</td><td style="text-align: center;">τῇ</td><td style="text-align: center;">τῷ</td><td><table><tr><td style="width: 20px; text-align: right;">τῷ</td><td>κυρίῳ</td></tr></table></td><td><table><tr><td style="width: 20px; text-align: right;">τῷ</td><td>ἔργῳ</td></tr></table></td><td><table><tr><td style="width: 20px; text-align: right;">τῷ</td><td>Ἰησοῦ</td></tr></table></td></tr>
 <tr><td>PLURAL</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td><table><tr><td style="width: 20px; text-align: right;"></td><td></td></tr></table></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><td>    Nominative</td><td style="text-align: center;">οἱ</td><td style="text-align: center;">αἱ</td><td style="text-align: center;">τά</td><td><table><tr><td style="width: 20px; text-align: right;">οἱ</td><td>κύριοι</td></tr></table></td><td><table><tr><td style="width: 20px; text-align: right;">τὰ</td><td>ἔργα</td></tr></table></td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><td>    Accusative</td><td style="text-align: center;">τούς</td><td style="text-align: center;">τάς</td><td style="text-align: center;">τά</td><td><table><tr><td style="width: 20px; text-align: right;">τοὺς</td><td>κυρίους</td></tr></table></td><td><table><tr><td style="width: 20px; text-align: right;">τὰ</td><td>ἔργα</td></tr></table></td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><td>    Genitive</td><td style="text-align: center;">τῶν</td><td style="text-align: center;">τῶν</td><td style="text-align: center;">τῶν</td><td><table><tr><td style="width: 20px; text-align: right;">τῶν</td><td>κυρίων</td></tr></table></td><td><table><tr><td style="width: 20px; text-align: right;">τῶν</td><td>ἔργων</td></tr></table></td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><td>    Dative</td><td style="text-align: center;">τοῖς</td><td style="text-align: center;">ταῖς</td><td style="text-align: center;">τοῖς</td><td><table><tr><td style="width: 20px; text-align: right;">τοῖς</td><td>κυρίοις</td></tr></table></td><td><table><tr><td style="width: 20px; text-align: right;">τοῖς</td><td>ἔργοις</td></tr></table></td><td></td></tr>
</table>

30 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
Features to note in these paradigms: 
2.41 The neuter nominative and accusative forms are the same as each other. This is true for all Greek neuter nouns (and adjectives and participles), both in the singular and the plural. 
2.42 The nominative and accusative neuter plurals end in -α, and all the genitive plurals end in -ων This is true for all neuter paradigms of all declensions. 
2.43 The masculine and neuter paradigms differ from each other only in the nominative and accusative cases — in the genitive and dative they are identical. 
2.44 The characteristic of the Greek dative case is the letter ι. NOTICE that in the singular of the First and Second Declensions it is written subscript (#1.56); but this subscript iota is still a part of the spelling of the word and must not be omitted.
2.45 The stem of the article is τ, except in the masculine and feminine nominative singular and plural, where it has become a rough breathing instead. 2.46 The Second Declension masculine singular has a separate, special form for the vocative. This is the first exception for us to note to the generalization that the vocative has the same form as the nominative (see #2.27).
2.47 The Second Declension (D2) is the most common noun group in the Greek New Testament, consisting of nouns which have their nominative singular ending in -ος and are masculine (372 New Testament words), or which end in -ον and are neuter (196 New Testament words).
2.5 INFLECTION OF ADJECTIVES AND PRONOUNS 
2.51 INFLECTION OF ADJECTIVES: An adjective, like the article, agrees with the noun to which it refers in number, gender, and case. The adjectives that have been listed so far (ἴδιος, μόνος and ὅλος — see #1.41) each therefore also have twenty-four forms. These correspond with the eight forms each of the Second Declension masculine, the First Declension feminine, and the Second Declension neuter. Thus the Greek word for "whole" (which is the source of our English word) has the three nominative singular forms ὅλος (masculine; declines like κύριος), ὅλη (feminine; declines like the feminine article) and ὅλον (neuter; declines like ἔργον). 
2.52 INFLECTION OF PRONOUNS: (a) Pronouns (#2.15) like αὐτός (#1.54) also have twenty-four forms, the three nominative singular forms being αὐτός (masculine, "he"), αὐτή (feminine, "she") and αὐτό (neuter, "it"). The possessive "his" is the genitive form, αὐτοῦ). 
    (b) The Nominative and Genitive first and second person pronouns are: 

<table>
 <tr><td></td><th>First Person</th><th>Second Person</th></tr>
 <tr>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><td> </td></tr>
 <tr><td>SINGULAR</td></tr>
 <tr><td>PLURAL</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><td>Nominative</td><td>Genitive</td></tr>
 <tr><td><table><tr><td>ἐγώ</td><td>I</td></tr></table></td><td><table><td>μου</td><td>my</td></table></td></tr>
 <tr><td><table><tr><td>ἡμεῖς</td><td>we</td></tr></table></td><td><table><td>ἡμῶν</td><td>our</td></table></td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><td>Nominative</td><td>Genitive</td></tr>
 <tr><td><table><tr><td>σύ</td><td>you</td></tr></table></td><td><table><td>σου</td><td>your</td></table></td></tr>
 <tr><td><table><tr><td>ὑμεῖς</td><td>you</td></tr></table></td><td><table><td>ὑμῶν</td><td>your</td></table></td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 </tr>
</table>

    (c) The genitive of a pronoun is placed after the word to which it refers: ὁ υἱός μου, "my son"; ὁ βασιλεὺς ὑμῶν, "your king". 
2.53 VOCABULARY LISTING: Adjectives and pronouns, like nouns, are listed in lexicons and vocabularies in their nominative singular form. Adjectives will normally be shown in the masculine, followed by the feminine and neuter endings, thus: ὅλος -η -ον (either with or 

TWO: THE ARTICLE; 2ND DECLENSION; PRESENT ACTIVE FLEXION 31 
without a hyphen in front of the endings). Pronouns are usually listed similarly. A noun is always listed in the nominative singular followed by either the full form of its genitive singular or just the ending of its genitive singular, as this allows the identification of its declension. This in turn is then followed by the indication of the noun's gender, either by "m", "f" or "n" respectively, or by giving the article that it takes. Thus the entry will appear as: κύριος, -ου, ὁ, or καρδία, -ας, ἡ 
2.6 PREPOSITIONS 
2.61 Many sentences contain nouns which are not the subject or object of the verb or related by the idea of "of" (genitive case) or "to" or "for" (dative case). For these nouns, their relationship to the rest of the sentence is usually shown through a preposition. A preposition is always located in front of the noun (or of the noun's article, if it has one) — hence the name, "pre-position", i.e. in the position in front of its noun. 
2.62 When a noun is used after a preposition in this way, it can never be nominative or vocative, but it can be either accusative, genitive or dative. These three cases which are used with prep-ositions are called the oblique cases as they are capable of being related obliquely (indirectly, that is, through the preposition) to the rest of the sentence; this is in contrast to the nominative case, which is called the direct case. 
2.63 Each Greek preposition takes or selects or governs either one particular case, or two cases, or all three oblique cases. The preposition has a different meaning with each of its different cases, if it can take more than one. Therefore it is the preposition together with the case it governs which gives the meaning in a particular sentence. This is the concept of collocation. Collocation means literally "located together". It refers to a group of two or more words which work together with each other to give the meaning, and are therefore taken together as a single unit of meaning in a sentence. 
2.64 Most prepositions have a central or core meaning (which is the usual one), and a number of extended meanings, which are all part of its total area of meaning (see #0.2). 
2.65 New prepositions will be introduced in each Lesson. They must always be learnt together with the case (or cases) that they take. The following three prepositions, and the case that each takes, should be learnt this lesson: 
(a) ἐν: Takes the dative. Used 2,713 times in the New Testament. Core meaning: "in". Extended meanings: "within, among, at, by means of, with". 
(b) ἐκ/ἐξ (see #1.75): Takes the genitive. Used 915 times in the New Testament. Core meaning: "out of" (indicating source or origin, or previous position). Extended meanings: "from amongst, away from, belonging to, a member of". 
(c) πρό: Takes the genitive. Used 47 times in the New Testament. Core meaning: "before"; used both of time (= "prior to") and place (= "in front of"). 
2.66 Thus when a word that is declined (noun, pronoun, adjective, or participle) is found in an oblique case (#2.62), it will be in that case for one of two reasons: either 
(a) it has the inherent meaning of that case (see #2.24; #2.26): in which circumstance you must give it that meaning in translating it; or 
(b) it is following a preposition which has selected the case it is in (see #2.63): in which circumstance the meaning will be the meaning which the preposition has when used with that particular case. 
(cᵃᵈᵈᵉᵈ ˢᵘᵇˢᵉᶜᵗᶦᵒⁿ ˢᴳᴴ)or, it conventionally acts as the object of a verb - usually this applies to the accusativeforthe direct object, and the dative for the indirect object, but for some verbs the genitive or dative acts as what will be translated as the object. 
2.67 Thus: σοι is the dative singular of "you" and therefore has the meaning "to you" or "for you" (#2.24). However, the preposition ἐν, "in", takes or selects the dative case: so ἔν σοι means "in

32 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
you" and DOES NOT mean "in to you" or "in for you" — in this circumstance the dative case is not being used to mean "to" or "for" because the dative case is selected by the preposition ἐν for whatever word ἐν governs. This is what is meant by saying (#2.65) that ἐν "takes the dative".
2.68 To find out which of these two possibilities (#2.66) applies when you come across an oblique case: look in front of the word(s) in the oblique case to see if there is a preposition there which governs that case. If so, then that preposition is the reason for the use of the oblique case, and the meaning of the words is the meaning of that preposition in conjunction with that case. If there is no preposition in front of the oblique case, then the word in the oblique case will have the inherent meaning of that case (ᵃᵈᵈᵉᵈ ˢᴳᴴ or it should be read with the verb in the phrase as a single unit). 
2.69 PREPOSITION COLLOCATION RULE Because a preposition has a different meaning with each of the different cases which it can take, you can only know what that preposition means in a given sentence if you take it in conjunction with the word(s) that it governs in the oblique case. That is, a preposition is taken in collocation (#2.63) with what it governs. Therefore the preposition collocation rule is: Always read a preposition in conjunction with what it governs in a sentence, and translate the preposition and what it governs as a single unit of meaning in that sentence. 
2.7 THE VERB 
2.71 The verb is the word in a sentence which makes a statement about the subject or which transfers an idea or an action from the subject to an object (some other person or thing). In English it can consist of more than one word; in Greek it usually is a single word. 
2.72 (a) In its usual type of mode or mood¹⁷ — the indicative — the verb can make an affirmation ("Jesus wept"), or ask a question ("Are you the Christ?"). It has these other modes also: (b) Make a request or give a command (imperative mode: "Lord, save us"; "Take and eat this"); (c) Make a statement about possibilities (subjunctive mode: "If anyone would be my disciple . ."). (d) The infinitive is also treated as a mode ("I will make you to become fishers of men . ."). These four — indicative, imperative, subjunctive and infinitive — are the ones normally used. (e) We meet the rare optative mode in #10.5. 
2.73 Like a pronoun (see #2.25), a verb indicates person (first, second or third) and we have noted earlier (#2.17) that it agrees with the number (singular or plural) of its subject (apart from some specific exceptions).
2.74 Like other inflected words, a verb consists of a lexal (see #1.92) and affixes, that is, morphs added to the lexal to indicate the grammatical information about a word in a particular sentence. An affix added at the beginning of a lexal is a prefix, within a lexal is an infix, and at the end of a lexal is a suffix. Most grammatical morphs are suffixes. By means of these morphs, a verb indicates its five features: person, number, tense (including time and/or aspect), mode, and voice. To parse a verb form is to state each of these features about it, in the order given here, followed by the lexical form (the form of the word which is given in a lexicon) and the word's meaning. Thus, λύομεν: first person plural present (durative) indicative active of λύω, "I loose". 
2.75 The inflected forms of a verb that indicate person and number are grouped together into a flexion and (as for a noun) a pattern flexion is called a paradigm. Related paradigms for verbs are known as a conjugation, and setting out the pattern of inflected forms for a particular verb is called conjugating it. 

TWO: THE ARTICLE; 2ND DECLENSION; PRESENT ACTIVE FLEXION 33 
2.76 The endings of a Greek verb which indicate the person and number of its subject had their origin long ago in the attachment of an unemphatic personal pronoun as a suffix to the stem of the verb (see historical grammarian A. T. Robertson, page 149: listed, Appendix F). This suffix can be referred to as a pronoun suffix. For example: stem φα- or φη- means "say", and the pronoun suffix -μι means "I", so (φημί means "I say". Similarly the stem of the verb "be" is ἐσ- and λυ- means "loose", while the pronoun suffix -μεν means "we". Thus ἐσμεν means "we are" and λύομεν means "we loose". 
2.77 Notice that in λύομεν a "joining vowel", -ο-, has been placed between λυ- and -μεν. In some other forms in a flexion this "joining vowel" is -ε-. Later on [#4.44(b)] we shall be learning about the role of this vowel in the verb; for the present, in the forms we are now learning, this vowel is a morph which has a "neutral" influence in a word; that is, it does not affect the word's meaning. It can therefore be called the neutral morph. For the time being it is convenient to take the neutral morph together with the pronoun morph as the "ending" of the verb. 
2.78 As the Greek language evolved over the centuries prior to the "classical era" (600-300 BC), there developed two basic paradigm patterns (that is to say, conjugations) for Greek verbs in the present tense. The older of these has retained the original -,ut pronoun ending of its form for the first person singular present indicative active (which is the lexical form of a verb, the form by which it is listed in a lexicon), and is therefore often referred to as the -ΜΙ Conjugation. In the evolution of the later, Omega Conjugation, the -μι has been lost and in the first person singular its -ο- vowel, the neutral morph, has lengthened into omega, this lengthening itself indicating the pronoun "I". 
2.79 We meet the -μι conjugation in due course (#7.7). The omega conjugation, which we shall look at now, is by far the more common conjugation in New Testament Greek. 
2.8 PARADIGMS OF THE PRESENT INDICATIVE ACTIVE 
2.81 The verb λύω "I loose" is the pattern verb for many hundreds of other New Testament verbs. Adding these endings to other verb lexals:

<table>
 <tr><td> </td><td> </td><th>Lexal/Ending</th><th>Meaning</th><th>"I see"</th><th>"I speak/say"</th></tr>
 <tr><th>SINGULAR </th><th>1 </th><td>  λύω</td><td>I loose/I am loosing </td><td>βλέπ-ω</td><td>    λέγ-ω</td></tr>
 <tr><th></th><th>2 </th><td>  λύεις</td><td>you loose/you are loosing </td><td>βλέπ-εις</td><td>    λέγ-εις</td></tr>
 <tr><th></th><th>3 </th><td>  λύει</td><td>he/she/it looses/he/she/it is loosing </td><td>βλέπ-ει</td><td>    λέγ-ει</td></tr>
 <tr><th>PLURAL </th><th>1 </th><td>  λύομεν</td><td>we loose/we are loosing </td><td>βλέπ-ομεν</td><td>    λέγ-ομεν</td></tr>
 <tr><th></th><th>2 </th><td>  λύετε</td><td>you loose/you are loosing </td><td>βλέπ-ετε</td><td>    λέγ-ετε</td></tr>
 <tr><th></th><th>3 </th><td>  λύουσι(ν)</td><td>they loose/they are loosing </td><td>βλέπ-ουσι(ν)</td><td>    λέγ-ουσι(ν)</td></tr>
</table>

2.82 POINTS TO NOTE: (a) NOTE that the ending for each form of the verb consists of the neutral morph (-ο- or -ε-) plus the pronoun suffix. For the first person singular, the pronoun suffix is not an additive morph (something added to the word), but the fact of the lengthening of the neutral morph -ο- into -ω. This is called a process morph": the morph consists of what is being done to something that is already there in a word form; that is, the morph is a process of change applied to a morph that is already part of the word form. (b) NOTE that the -ει ending of the third person singular does not differentiate gender but can mean "he" or "she" or "it" — it is necessary to decide which pronoun to use according to the context. (If in doubt, translate as "he".) (c) NOTE that the third person plural form, λύουσι(ν), has movable nu (see #1.75). 

34 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
(d) NOTE that to find the lexal of an omega verb, you simply remove the -ω. To this lexal you then add whichever ending is needed. You can thus take the endings of λύω and add them to the lexal of any other omega verb, as in the examples of βλέπω and λέγω, above. Translate into Greek: "We see"; "They are saying", "You (singular) speak". 
See the further comments on these forms to be found in #A2.34 to #A2.39. 
2.83 INTERNAL SUBJECT: We have seen (#2.76) that each verb form already contains its own subject, which is an unemphatic personal pronoun. Thus the subject of λέγομεν, "we are saying", is -μεν, "we". That is to say, each verb form already has, as part of it, an internal subject. If the verb is first or second person then that internal subject will be "I" or "we", or "you" singular or plural, as the case may be. If the verb is third person singular, then as the pronoun suffix does not indicate gender, the subject can be translated "he", "she", or "it", as the context requires; if the verb is third person plural, its internal subject is "they". Thus in the sentence (Luke 7:33) Δαιμόνιον ἔχει, the third person singular verb ἔχει will be translated "he has".
2.84 EXTERNAL SUBJECT: When the verb is third person (singular or plural) it will frequently have with it a separate word as the subject (the topic about which the verb is making a comment —see #2.11). This separate word will be in the nominative case: this is how you will recognize it as the subject of the verb. There may well also be an article and/or adjective with the subject word, all of them in the nominative case (that will be how you know they collocate together, that is, belong together as one unit of the sentence). This subject (consisting of one, two, or more words) is an external subject — it is external to the verb. When an external subject occurs in a clause, it takes over the role of subject from the internal subject, and therefore the internal subject is NOT TRANSLATED. Consider the sentence (John 18:38), Λέγει αὐτῷ ὁ Πιλάτος: the verb form λέγει is third person singular of λέγω, and therefore means "he/she/it says"; but there is an external subject (after the verb, in the nominative case), ὁ Πιλάτος. Thus the correct translation is "Pilate says to him" (and NOT: "Pilate he says to him"). 
2.85 "EMERGENCY USE ONLY": As there is frequently an external subject in the clause, we can see that the internal subject will not very often need to be translated. We should look on the internal subject as being "for emergency use only" — that is, only to be used when there is no external subject in the clause. We start by searching for the external subject, and only use the internal subject if there is no other. Consider the sentence (John 19:14), καὶ λέγει τοῖς Ἰουδαίοις: again the verb form is λέγει"he/she/it says". But there is no external subject for this verb, so the internal subject will be needed. The context shows that out of "he/she/it" the right subject is "he", giving us the translation "and he says to the Jews". 
2.86 EMPHATIC PRONOUNS: We have seen (#2.83) that there is no separate word actually needed with a Greek verb for "I", "we", or "you", because these pronouns are part of the verb form as an internal subject. But there are emphatic pronouns for use with the first and second person (and third person) forms of the verb (#1.95). NOTE: These emphatic pronouns can be used with any verb. So when one of these pronouns occurs, it is an external subject, and is used as a way of indicating emphasis. Compare the shade of difference in meaning between simply saying, Εἶ ὁ Χριστός, "You are the Christ" (without any special emphasis), and Σὺ εἶ ὁ Χριστός, "You are the Christ" (emphasis on the "you"). Can you see the difference in meaning between these two sentences? Thus in the sentence (John 18:37) Σὺ λέγεις , ὅτι βασιλεύς εἰμι [ἐγώ], "You say that I am a king", there is an emphatic pronoun for "you" (σύ), but the emphatic pronoun for "I" (ἐγώ) is not used. So the "you" is emphasized, but not the "I". When translating, always indicate this emphasis by underlining each emphatic pronoun in your translation. 

TWO: THE ARTICLE; 2ND DECLENSION; PRESENT ACTIVE FLEXION 35 
2.87 Where Knowing Greek Makes a Difference: The degree of emphasis intended by the author will vary from one context to another, but sometimes the shades of meaning from emphatic pronouns can be quite significant. If you know Greek, you will recognize the emphatic pronouns, and pick up on these shades of meaning. An example of this is the emphatic I in the great "I am" statements by the Lord in the Gospels and Revelation (see L2/B2 [Sentence B2 of this Lesson]). Then, note the contrast in emphasis in "You have faith, and I have works" (L2/B3), and in "You are a disciple of that fellow, but we are disciples of Moses" (L3/B15). There is similar contrast in emphasis in the conversation between John (ἐγώ, I) and the priests and Levites, who refer to him as σύ (John 1:21-23; L3/1330). And note the significance of the emphatic "I" in Matthew 10:16 (L3/1323): "You are being sent out as sheep in the midst of wolves, but I am the one who is sending you" [and that will make all the difference!].
2.88 A SECOND ACCENT TO NOTE: Once before (see #A1.37) we needed to note an accent. In this Lesson we have a second instance where an accent is important. In the verb εἰμί, the second person singular form is εἶ. Note the use of the circumflex over the smooth breathing on the iota. The accent distinguishes this verb form from εἰ, with a smooth breathing but no accent, which means "if".
2.89 ASKING A QUESTION: The paradigms given for εἰμί (#1.95) and λύω (#2.81) are paradigms for the Indicative Mode, that is, where a verb is stating something as a fact. The Indicative also includes the Interrogative, that is, when a verb is asking a question. Often the Greek wording of a statement and a question will be the same. How then will you know that a question is being asked? In this book, and in your edition of the Greek New Testament, this is shown by the use of the question mark (;) at the end of a sentence. NOTE: The first step in understanding the meaning of a Greek sentence is to check whether or not it is a question.
2.9 WORD ORDER 
2.91 Greek sentence order can differ considerably from that of English. Word order is used in English to indicate the relationship of the words in the sentence: consider the difference in meaning, indicated solely by word order, between "The man ate a large fish" and "A large fish ate the man". In contrast, Greek indicates case (subject, object, and other relationships) by its word endings, and the position of a word in a clause or sentence is frequently used to indicate emphasis. 
2.92 EMPHATIC POSITIONS: The beginning of a sentence is an emphatic position, and the most important word in a sentence may be placed first to give it emphasis. At times in English also we may put a word first in a sentence, out of its usual order, so as to place emphasis upon it. Consider these two examples from the NIV where the object of the verb has been placed first: "The poor you will always have with you" (Matthew 26:11); "This command I received from my Father" (John 10:14). Similarly, other words can be placed first for emphasis: "Never man spoke like this man" (see John 7:46, AV). Indeed, in Greek a noun in this emphatic position can be considered definite enough not to be given the article. Thus in Ἀρχὴ τοῦ εὐαγγελίου [see L 1/A9 (Lesson One, Selection A9)], 'Aprj is translated in English as "The beginning". Again, a word can also be emphasized in Greek by being held back to the end of a clause or sentence. 
2.93 NOUN SUBJECT: When the subject is a noun, it is normal for it to be placed after the verb to which it refers — it will be recognized as being the subject as it is nominative case, and will usually have the article, also in the nominative case. (NOTE: a pronoun subject may be found placed anywhere in a clause, and frequently comes in front of the verb.) 
2.94 THE GREEK NEGATIVE: The negative "not" in Greek is οὐ before a consonant, οὐκ before a vowel or diphthong with a smooth breathing, and οὐχ before a vowel or diphthong with a 

36 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
rough breathing (compare English use of "a"/"an"). In Greek the negative usually functions very closely together with the verb, and indeed they can be regarded as filling the one (verb) slot in the sentence. The negative comes in front of the verb to which it refers, whereas in English it will be placed after an auxiliary verb ("have", "do", etc.). Compare the order of ἐγὼ οὐκ εἰμί, with the English word order, "I am not". Greek normally puts the negative with the verb, whereas English style most frequently would take it with the noun: thus Greek will say, Ἄρτους οὐκ ἔχομεν (note how the negative collocates with or goes with the verb), while the English translation will be, "We have no bread" (the negative going with the noun, rather than "We do not have bread"). 
2.95 COMPLEMENT: The word (or words) coming after the verb "to be" to complete the thought is called the complement (that is to say, the "completement"). Its customary position in Greek is prior to the verb. Thus Kijptog kowtv 6 viol roc) dtvepa57wv means "the son of man is lord". Note: (a) that the complement has no article (it is usual for the complement not to have an article), and (b) that the complement is in the nominative case (because Etui is a verb of equivalence — that is, the complement equates with [is the same person/thing as] the subject). 
2.96 CONJUNCTIONS WHICH ARE NEVER FIRST: Most Greek sentences commence with a conjunction, a "joining word" (#2.18), such as καί, "and", ἀλλά, "but", εἰ, "if", ὅτι, "because, that", πόθεν, "whence? where from?", ὡς, "like, as", καθώς*, "just as"; and so on. However, there are a small number of conjunctions which can never be placed first in a Greek clause or sentence. The most common of these are the conjunctions δέ ("and", "but"), τέ, ("and [so]"), γάρ ("for"), and οὖν ("then", "therefore"). The translation of δέ, τέ and γάρ needs to be placed first in their clause or sentence when rendering them into English. 
2.97 GENITIVES AND ADJECTIVES: 
    (a) A genitive regularly comes after the noun to which it refers. Thus οἱ υἱοὶ τοῦ πονηροῦ, "the sons of the Evil One". This applies also to the Greek possessive pronouns such as "my" and "your": in translation into English these will need to be placed in front of their noun. Thus: ὁ βασιλεὺς ὑμῶν, to be translated as, "your king". (If a Greek genitive is placed in front of what it refers to, this would be a change of word order indicating emphasis — #2.91.) 
    (b) An adjective can come between the article and its noun. Note the position of the dative σῷ of the adjective σός, "your" (singular), ἐν τῷ σῷ ἀγρῷ, "in your field" (L2/B25). It can also come after the noun: but in that case the noun's article must be repeated in front of the adjective. Thus, in L2/B14: ὁ υἱός μου ὁ ἀγαπητός, "my beloved son" — more literally, "my son, the beloved one". 
    (c) An adjectival prepositional phrase can be used in the same way, after the noun it refers to, with the noun's article repeated. Thus, in L2/B5: ὁ ἄρτος ὁ ἐκ τοῦ οὐρανοῦ, "the bread out of the heaven" (the repeated article is not translated). 
2.98 INDECLINABLE WORDS: Some words (mostly foreign names) are indeclinable, and will be recognized as genitive (or one of the other cases) only by their position, and the sense of the sentence. Thus: ὁ θεὸς Ἰακώβ, "the God of Jacob" (L2/B20). Ἰακώβ, "Jacob", is in the normal genitive position, after the noun to which it refers, and therefore is translated here as "of Jacob". (When an article is used with an indeclinable name — see #2.33 — this will enable its case to be known: for example, John 4:5, ὃ ἔδωκεν Ἰακὼβ [τῷ] Ἰωσὴφ, "which Jacob gave to Joseph".) 
2.99 NORMAL GREEK WORD ORDER: For fuller detail, see #A2.6. In summary: Some Greek sentences, especially when the subject is a pronoun, can have a word order quite close to that of English. And at times normal Greek word order will be altered, especially to indicate emphasis. But for many Greek clauses and sentences we can recognize a basic pattern of normal Greek word order. This basic pattern for Greek is: conjunction, complement/direct object, verb, subject. Moreover, as we have seen, a genitive will regularly follow the noun to which it refers.


TWO: THE ARTICLE; 2ND DECLENSION; PRESENT ACTIVE FLEXION 37 
Other words and phrases will be fitted into this basic pattern. Now, the basic word order pattern for English is: conjunction, subject, verb, complement/direct object, indirect object. Note then: In translating from Greek, you must locate each grammatical unit in the Greek sentence, and place it in its right position for English order. That is: Be sure that you translate not only Greek words into English words, but also Greek order into English order. 
ASSIGNMENTS ON LESSON TWO 
It is important to use your study time to learn the paradigms set for the Lesson, to read the relevant section of Appendix A for each Lesson, and to use your Workbook to see that you have understood the grammar that you need to know. But: spend most of your available study time for each Lesson working on translating the Selections from the Greek New Testament — these are the practical examples, from the New Testament, of the grammar covered in the Lesson.
1. PARADIGMS FOR LEARNING: The paradigms which now need to be learnt by heart are: 2. The Article (#2.40) 3. The Present Indicative Active of λύω (#2.81). LEARN these paradigms down the columns. Write them out from memory. (Use the Practice Sheet in your Workbook to assist you with this.) Check your work against this book and make sure that you have all the forms word perfect, and correctly spelt. NOTE: you should spend five minutes daily in learning the set paradigms for each Lesson. Read a paradigm aloud once or twice, then close your eyes and say it aloud again. Follow this procedure a second time. Then go on to the next paradigm. Go through one or two paradigms each day in this way, then review all of them together at the end of each week.
2. LEARNING THE SECOND DECLENSION: Compare the masculine and neuter flexion of the article with the paradigms for the Second Declension, κύριος and ἔργον. Learn to recognize the forms of the Second Declension by noting similarities and differences between their endings and the article. 
3. APPENDIX: READ CAREFULLY the comments and guidelines which are set out in the Appendix, #A2. Note in particular the Principles of Translation (#A2.4) and Translation Techniques (#A2.5), and be guided by these in your work. 
4. WORKBOOK: ANSWER THE QUESTIONS in your Workbook about this Lesson. 
5. TRANSLATION EXERCISES A AND B: Do the Translation Exercises which follow. NOTE: To translate these sentences you will need to use the prepositions (#2.65) and the paradigms set for learning this Lesson, together with Eipi and the words on your Vocabulary Cards from Lesson One. The meanings of all other words that will be needed are given below, next to the first sentence in which each new word is used. (Some alternative meanings for these words are given in brackets.) 
6. VOCABULARY CARDS: Write out Vocabulary Cards for all the new words as you are introduced to them this Lesson, in the top lefthand corner of each side of each Card writing 2 (for a word introduced in Lesson Two). Add these cards to your collection, and place them all in Greek alphabetical order. You will also be able to add extra information to some existing Cards. Put different meanings for the same Greek word on the one Card. On Cards for prepositions, be sure to put the case taken as well as the meaning. Look words up on your Vocabulary Cards as you need them. Seek to remember each word as you look it up and use it. 

38 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
A. TRANSLATION FROM ENGLISH INTO GREEK 
(This may be done as an exercise in class at the end of the Lesson, or set as an assignment.) 

<table>
 <tr><td>A1.</td><td>Jesus is the tree of life.</td><td>"of life": see #1.94</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A2.</td><td>It is the voice of a prophet.</td><td>"prophet", genitive singular: προφήτου</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A3.</td><td>I (emphatic) am a teacher of the Jews.</td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><td>A4.</td><td>This is God's work.</td><td>"this", neuter singular: τοῦτο</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A5.</td><td>Is this the place?</td><td>"this", masculine singular: *οὗτος</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A6.</td><td>The prophet sees earth and heaven.</td><td>re accusative of "earth": see #2.35</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A7.</td><td>God sees the soul of a man.</td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><td>A8.</td><td>Jesus speaks the words of life.</td><td>"word": *λόγος</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A9.</td><td>The hypocrite does not speak.</td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><td>A10.</td><td>This is a message out of heaven.</td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><td>A11.</td><td>You (plural, emphatic) are breaking the law of God.</td><td>"breaking": loosing, *λύω</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A12.</td><td>Men are saying, "Jesus is the Christ."</td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><td>A13.</td><td>God says to the Christ, "You (emphatic) are my Son."</td><td>"my": μου (after the noun it refers to)</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A14.</td><td>The Son speaks words out of the heart.</td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><td>A15.</td><td>We (emphatic) say, "This is the gospel of the Lord."</td><td></td></tr>
</table>


B. SELECTIONS FROM THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
(NOTE: These are selections from the verses listed; only a part of the verse is being set for you to read at this stage.) 


<table>
 <tr><td> </td><th>SELECTION</th><th>NOTES AND NEW WORDS</th></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B1.</td><td>Ἡμεῖς νόμον ἔχομεν. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 19:7)</td><td>*ἔχω: I have</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B2.</td><td>Ἐγώ εἰμι τὸ Ἄλφα καὶ τὸ Ὦ, λέγει Κύριος ὁ θεός. (ΑΠΟΚΑΛΥΨΙΣ ΙΩΑΝΝΟΥ 1:8)</td><td>*καί: and (also, even); *λέγω: I say/speak/tell</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B3.</td><td>Σὺ πίστιν ἔχεις, κἀγὼ ἔργα ἔχω· (ΙΑΚΩΒΟΥ 2:18)</td><td>*πίστις, -εως, ἡ: faith [see #A2.57]; *κἀγώ = καὶ ἐγώ</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B4.</td><td>Ἄρτους οὐκ ἔχομεν. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΡΚΟΝ 8:16, margin)</td><td>[See #2.94.]</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B5.</td><td>Οὗτός ἐστιν ὁ ἄρτος ὁ ἐκ τοῦ οὐρανοῦ καταβαίνων (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 6:50)</td><td>*ἐκ: out of (+gen) [See #2.65; #2.97(c)]; καταβαίνων: coming down</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B6.</td><td>καὶ λέγετε, Δαιμόνιον ἔχει· (ΚΑΤΑ ΛΟΥΚΑΝ 7:33)</td><td>*δαιμόνιον, -ου, τό: demon</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B7.</td><td>Σὺ λέγεις , ὅτι βασιλεύς εἰμι ἐγώ. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 18:37)</td><td>*ὅτι: that (because; " [#1.84])</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B8.</td><td>ὁ Πιλάτος λέγει τῷ Ἰησοῦ, Πόθεν εἶ σύ; (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 19:8-9)</td><td>Πιλᾶτος, -ου, ὁ: Pilate; πόθεν: whence, where from?</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B9.</td><td>ὁ Πέτρος λέγει αὐτῷ, Σὺ εἶ ὁ χριστός. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΡΚΟΝ 8:29)</td><td>Πέτρος, -ου, ὁ: Peter; αὐτῷ: to him</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B10.</td><td>Ἀκούεις τί οὗτοι λέγουσιν; (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΤΘΑΙΟΝ 21:16)</td><td>*ἀκούω: I hear; τί: what? (why?) οὗτοι: these (men, people)</td></tr>
</table>


TWO: THE ARTICLE; 2ND DECLENSION; PRESENT ACTIVE FLEXION 39

<table>
 <tr><td> </td><th>SELECTION</th><th>NOTES AND NEW WORDS</th></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B11.</td><td>Σαμαρείτης εἶ σύ, καὶ δαιμόνιον ἔχεις;
 Ἐγὼ δαιμόνιον οὐκ ἔχω. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 8:48-49)</td><td>Σαμαρείτης, -ου, ὁ: a Samaritan</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B12.</td><td>Σὺ εἶ Σίμων ὁ υἱὸς Ἰωνᾶ. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 1:42)</td><td>Σίμων: Simon; Ἰωνᾶς, -ᾶ, ὁ: Jonas</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B13.</td><td>Λέγει αὐτῷ ὁ Πιλάτος, Τί ἐστιν ἀλήθεια; (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 18:38)</td><td>*ἀλήθεια, -ας, ἡ: truth</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B14.</td><td>καὶ φωνὴ ἐγένετο ἐκ τῶν οὐρανῶν, Σὺ εἶ ὁ υἱός μου ὁ ἀγαπητός. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΡΚΟΝ 1:11)</td><td>ἐγένετο: [there] came, became; μου: my; *ἀγαπητός -ή -όν: beloved</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B15.</td><td>Κἀγὼ δέ σοι λέγω, ὅτι σὺ εἶ Πέτρος. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 16:18)</td><td>*καί: also (and); *δέ: and (but) [#2.96]; σοι: to you (singular)</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B16.</td><td>Λέγει αὐτῷ ἡ γυνή, Κύριε, θεωρῶ ὅτι προφήτης εἶ σύ. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 4:19)</td><td>*γυνή, -αικος, ἡ: woman; κύριε: Sir; θεωρῶ: I perceive, observe</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B17.</td><td>καὶ λέγει τοῖς Ἰουδαίοις, Ἴδε, ὁ βασιλεὺς ὑμῶν. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 19:14)</td><td>Ἰουδαῖος -αία -ον: a Jew; ἴδε: behold</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B18.</td><td>ὁ Ἰωάννης ... βλέπει τὸν Ἰησοῦν ... καὶ λέγει, Ἴδε ὁ ἀμνὸς τοῦ θεοῦ. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 1:29)</td><td>*βλέπω: I see; ἀμνός, -οῦ, ὁ: lamb</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B19.</td><td>Καὶ ἰδού, φωνὴ ἐκ τῶν οὐρανῶν, λέγουσα, Οὗτός ἐστιν ὁ υἱός μου ὁ ἀγαπητός. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 3:17)</td><td>*ἰδού: behold; λέγουσα: saying (participle)</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B20.</td><td>Ἐγώ εἰμι ὁ θεὸς Ἀβραάμ, καὶ ὁ θεὸς Ἰσαάκ, καὶ ὁ θεὸς Ἰακώβ. Οὐκ ἔστιν ὁ θεὸς θεὸς νεκρῶν, ἀλλὰ ζώντων. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 22:32)</td><td>Ἀβραάμ: Abraham; Ἰσαάκ: Isaac; Ἰακώβ: Jacob; νεκρῶν: of those who are dead; *ἀλλά: but; ζώντων: of those who are living</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B21.</td><td>ἔργα τῶν χειρῶν σού εἰσιν οἱ οὐρανοί· (ΠΡΟΣ ΕΒΡΑΙΟΥΣ 1:10)</td><td>*χείρ, χειρός, ἡ: hand; σου: your (singular)</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B22.</td><td>Ἰδού, ἐγὼ ἀποστέλλω τὸν ἄγγελόν μου πρὸ προσώπου σου. (KATA MAPKON 1:2)</td><td>*ἀποστέλλω: I send; *ἄγγελος, -ου, ὁ: messenger (angel); *πρό (+gen): before; *πρόσωπον, -ου, τό: face</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B23.</td><td>καὶ ἰδού, φωνὴ ἐκ τῆς νεφέλης, λέγουσα, Οὗτός ἐστιν ὁ υἱός μου ὁ ἀγαπητός. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 17:5)</td><td>νεφέλη, ἡ: cloud</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B24.</td><td>κύριός ἐστιν ὁ υἱὸς τοῦ ἀνθρώπου καὶ τοῦ σαββάτου. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΡΚΟΝ 2:28)</td><td>*κύριος, -ου, ὁ: lord; *καί: also, even (and)</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B25.</td><td>Κύριε, οὐχὶ καλὸν σπέρμα ἔσπειρας ἐν τῷ σῷ ἀγρῷ; Πόθεν οὖν ἔχει ζιζάνια; (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 13:27)</td><td>*οὐχί: not; *καλός -ή -όν: good; σπέρμα, -ατος, τό: seed; ἔσπειρας: you (sg) sowed; *ἐν (+dat): in; σός σή σόν: your (sing); ἀγρός, -οῦ, ὁ: field; *οὖν: then, so; ζιζάνιον, -ου, τό: darnel (weed resembling wheat)</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B26.</td><td>Ὁ σπείρων τὸ καλὸν σπέρμα ἐστὶν ὁ υἱὸς τοῦ ἀνθρώπου· ὁ δὲ ἀγρός ἐστιν ὁ κόσμος· τὸ δὲ καλὸν σπέρμα, οὗτοί εἰσιν οἱ υἱοὶ τῆς βασιλείας· τὰ δὲ ζιζάνιά εἰσιν οἱ υἱοὶ τοῦ πονηροῦ· (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 13:37-38)</td><td>ὁ σπείρων: the one who sows; *βασιλεία, -ας, ἡ: kingdom (reign); *πονηρός -ά -όν: evil, the Evil One</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B27.</td><td>Καὶ φωνὴ ἐγένετο ἐκ τῆς νεφέλης, λέγουσα, Οὗτός ἐστιν ὁ υἱός μου ὁ ἀγαπητός (var. ἐκλελεγμένος). (ΚΑΤΑ ΛΟΥΚΑΝ 9:35)</td><td> ἐκλελεγμένος: chosen [one]</td></tr>
</table>

<hr>
</div>

<div id="L3" class="Lesson">
LESSON THREE 
FIRST DECLENSION AND SECOND AORIST ACTIVE 
3.1 COMPLETE PARADIGMS FOR THE FIRST DECLENSION (D1) 
3.11 In Lesson Two, the feminine form of the article introduced us to the First Declension (D1). The pattern of the article is in fact only one of four basic paradigms for this declension — the endings differ slightly according to the nature of the last letter of the stem to which they are being added, and according to whether the word is masculine or feminine gender (there are no neuter words of the First Declension). There is also a mixed or hybrid feminine paradigm, which changes from one to another of the two basic feminine patterns. These five First Declension paradigms are set out here: 


<table>
 <tr><th> </th><th>FEMININE NOUNS</th><th>MASCULINE NOUNS</th></tr>
<tr>
<td>
<table>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr><td>   </td></tr>
<tr><td>Singular</td></tr>
<tr><td>  Nominative</td></tr>
<tr><td>  Vocative</td></tr>
<tr><td>  Accusative</td></tr>
<tr><td>  Genitive</td></tr>
<tr><td>  Dative</td></tr>
<tr><td>Plural</td></tr>
<tr><td>  Nominative</td></tr>
<tr><td>  Accusative</td></tr>
<tr><td>  Genitive</td></tr>
<tr><td>  Dative</td></tr>
</table>
</td>
<td>
<table>
 <tr><th>D1.2 c stem</th><th>D1.1 ριε stem</th><th>D1.3 σ stem</th></tr>
 <tr><td>voice</td><td>heart</td><td>glory</td></tr>
 <tr><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
 <tr><td>φωνή</td><td>καρδία</td><td>δόξα</td></tr>
 <tr><td>φωνή</td><td>καρδία</td><td>δόξα</td></tr>
 <tr><td>φωνήν</td><td>καρδίαν</td><td>δόξαν</td></tr>
 <tr><td>φωνῆς</td><td>καρδίας</td><td>δόξης</td></tr>
 <tr><td>φωνῇ</td><td>καρδίᾳ</td><td>δόξῃ</td></tr>
 <tr><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
 <tr><td>φωναί</td><td>καρδίαι</td><td>δόξαι</td></tr>
 <tr><td>φωνάς</td><td>καρδίας</td><td>δόξας</td></tr>
 <tr><td>φωνῶν</td><td>καρδιῶν</td><td>δοξῶν</td></tr>
 <tr><td>φωναῖς</td><td>καρδίαις</td><td>δόξαις</td></tr>
</table>
</td>
<td>
<table>
 <tr><th>D1.5 c stem</th><th>D1.4 ριε stem</th></tr>
 <tr><td>disciple</td><td>young man</td></tr>
 <tr><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
 <tr><td>μαθητής</td><td>νεανίας</td></tr>
 <tr><td>μαθητά</td><td>νεανία</td></tr>
 <tr><td>μαθητήν</td><td>νεανίαν</td></tr>
 <tr><td>μαθητοῦ</td><td>νεανίου</td></tr>
 <tr><td>μαθητῇ</td><td>νεανίᾳ</td></tr>
 <tr><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
 <tr><td>μαθηταί</td><td>νεανίαι</td></tr>
 <tr><td>μαθητάς</td><td>νεανίας</td></tr>
 <tr><td>μαθητῶν</td><td>νεανιῶν</td></tr>
 <tr><td>μαθηταῖς</td><td>νεανίαις</td></tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>

3.12 It is necessary for you to be able to recognize the forms of these paradigms, not by learning them off by heart, but by understanding how their flexions compare with and differ from that for the feminine article. 
3.13 FEMININE CONSONANT STEM PARADIGM (D1.2): If the stem of a feminine word ends in a phoneme (#1.42) other than -ρ, -ι, ε, or a sibilant, then the flexion for that word is identical with that for the feminine article ἡ, #2.40, taking -η throughout all its singular endings (like φωνή). This is Paradigm D1.2 (the abbreviation for Declension 1, Paradigm 2), referred to as the "Feminine Consonant Stem Paradigm", because almost all the words which follow this paradigm have consonant stems — it is followed by 191 New Testament words, 185 with consonant stems, four ending in -οη one in -ωη, and one in -ευη (these words are listed in #D1.64). NOTE: If you know the feminine article, then you already know how to decline φωνή, for it follows the article exactly. 
3.14 FEMININE pie STEM PARADIGM (D1.1): If the stem of a word ends in one of the three phonemes -ρ, -ι, or -ε, then that word has -α throughout all its singular endings (like καρδία). This is Paradigm D1.1, referred to as the "ριε" Paradigm because the stem of all but one of the words which follow this paradigm — there are 310 of them in the New Testament — ends in a p, / or a (The one exception is στοά, "porch", which is also an exception to the expectation — see #3.13 — that an -ο stem would end in -οη.³⁸) NOTE: If you know the paradigm for φωνή, you can immediately see how καρδία, will decline: simply change each -η in the flexion of φωνή into -α, and you have the endings for καρδία. 
40

THREE: FIRST DECLENSION AND SECOND AORIST ACTIVE 41 
3.15 FEMININE SIGMA STEM PARADIGM (D1.3): If the stem of a word ends in a sibilant (ζ, σ, or a double letter containing σ), then that word follows the mixed pattern of δόξα, Paradigm D1.3, referred to as the "Sigma Stem Paradigm". In addition, the Sigma Stem Paradigm is also followed by four New Testament words ending in -ρ, eight in -ν, and one each in -λ and -θ. As there are eight New Testament nouns with sibilant stems, there are thus a total of 22 New Testament nouns which follow Paradigm D1.3. These nouns, and the number of times each occurs in the New Testament, are set out in #D1.65. Paradigm D1.3 is also followed by numerous pronouns and participles which have a sibilant stem in their feminine flexions. NOTE: If you know the paradigms for καρδία and φωνή, you can immediately see how to decline δόξα: the endings of the first two forms (nominative and accusative singular) follow καρδία, and the next two (genitive and dative singular) follow φωνή: hence the description of the paradigm of δόξα as "the mixed pattern". 
3.16 MASCULINE CONSONANT STEM PARADIGM (D1.5): Most words of the First Declension are feminine, belonging to one or other of the above three paradigms. There are also, in the New Testament, 112 masculine common nouns of the First Declension, 111 of which have their stem ending in a consonant (usually -τ), and which all follow Paradigm D1.5, μαθητής. There are three differences between this paradigm and D1.2, the corresponding Feminine Consonant Stem Paradigm: 
(a) in the nominative singular, masculine words are distinguished by taking an additional -ς as their final letter; 
(b) this paradigm has a vocative case ending in -α (this is the second exception for us to note to the generalization that the vocative has the same form as the nominative [#2.27; see also #2.46]); and 
(c) in the genitive singular, masculine First Declension words switch to the pattern of the Second Declension (see #2.40) and take -ου as their ending — which has the effect of making a difference between the forms of the nominative and genitive singular of this paradigm. NOTE: If you know the paradigm for φωνή, you can immediately see how μαθητής will decline: simply make the three "First Declension masculine" changes to the flexion of φωνή, and you have the paradigm for μαθητής. 
3.17 MASCULINE ριε STEM PARADIGM (D1.4): There is only one masculine common noun of the First Declension with a "ριε" stem: νεανίας. However, there are twenty-four names (for example, Ἀνδρεας, "Andrew") which follow Paradigm D1.4. This paradigm differs from that of μαθητής (Paradigm D1.5) in the same way that καρδία differs from φωνή where μαθητής has -η, νεανίας has -α. NOTE: If you know the paradigm for καρδία, you can immediately see how veaviag will decline: simply make the three "First Declension masculine" changes (see #3.16) to the flexion of καρδία, and you have the paradigm for νεανίας. There is also a sixth First Declension paradigm — D1.6, the "long α" paradigm, followed by three rare words and thirty-two names such as Θωμᾶς, "Thomas". This differs from veaviag only in one form: the genitive singular ending is -α, not -ου. 
3.18 PLURALS ALL THE SAME: In all cases in the plural, the First Declension nouns, both masculine and feminine, follow the endings of the feminine article. 
3.19 AGREEMENT IN GENDER: As the article always agrees in gender with its noun, "the disciple" will be ὁ μαθητής, and "the disciples" will be οἱ μαθηταί. TEST: Translate: "of the young man". 
3.2 FEMININE NOUNS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION ος κύριος
3.21 In #2.40 we met the masculine and neuter paradigms of the Second Declension, the most common noun group in the Greek New Testament. In the New Testament there are also fifty Second Declension nouns which are (or can be) feminine in gender. All these feminine nouns have their nominative singular in -og and follow the paradigm of niptog exactly. But when they take the article, it will be feminine gender, because the article always agrees with the noun to which it refers in number, gender and case (#2.33). 

42 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
3.22 Twenty-eight such feminine Second Declension nouns occur in the Greek New Testament (listed, #D2.44), but most of them are used only a small number of times each. There are only five which are each used ten times or more in the Greek New Testament, and the two most common words of these five are used in the Selections in the Assignments for this Lesson. 
3.23 Twenty-two of the masculine Second Declension words can also be feminine gender. Thus ἡ θεός is "the goddess" (as in Acts 19:37); παρθένος "a virgin", can refer either to a male or a female as indicated by the gender of the article (or the context, as in Revelation 14:4); and similarly διάκονος, "servant, deacon", can be used with either masculine or feminine article (or personal name, as in Romans 16:1) to refer respectively to a male or female servant or deacon. (These twenty-two words are listed in #D2.45.) 
3.3 PRONOUNS 
3.31 Pronouns that refer to people or things, like "I", "me", "us" "you", "her", "it", are called personal pronouns. You will recognize, below, a few forms which we have met already. 
3.32 LEARN NOW the flexions of the 1st and 2nd person pronouns. As usual, learn them down the columns, for the 1st person (singular and plural) and then the 2nd person. 

<table><tr><th>SINGULAR</th><th>1st</th><th>2nd</th><th>3rd m.</th><th>3rd f.</th><th>3rd n.</th><th>m.</th><th>f.</th><th>n.</th></tr>
 <tr><th>Nominative</th><td>ἐγώ</td><td>σύ</td><td>αὐτός</td><td>αὐτή</td><td>αὐτό</td><td>οὗτος</td><td>αὕτη</td><td>τοῦτο</td></tr>
 <tr><th>Accusative</th><td>ἐμέ/με</td><td>σέ/σε</td><td>αὐτόν</td><td>αὐτήν</td><td>αὐτό</td><td>τοῦτον</td><td>ταύτην</td><td>τοῦτο</td></tr>
 <tr><th>Genitive</th><td>ἐμοῦ/μου</td><td>σοῦ/σου</td><td>αὐτοῦ</td><td>αὐτῆς</td><td>αὐτοῦ</td><td>τοῦτου</td><td>ταύτης</td><td>τοῦτου</td></tr>
 <tr><th>Dative</th><td>ἐμοί/μοι</td><td>σοί/σοι</td><td>αὐτῷ</td><td>αὐτῇ</td><td>αὐτῷ</td><td>τούτῳ</td><td>ταύτῃ</td><td>τούτῳ</td></tr>
 <tr><th>PLURAL</th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><th>Nominative</th><td>ἡμεῖς</td><td>ὑμεῖς</td><td>αυτοί</td><td>αὐταί</td><td>αὐτά</td><td>οὗτοι</td><td>αὗται</td><td>ταῦτα</td></tr>
 <tr><th>Accusative</th><td>ἡμᾶς</td><td>ὑμᾶς</td><td>αὐτούς</td><td>αὐτάς</td><td>αὐτά</td><td>τούτους</td><td>ταύτας</td><td>ταῦτα</td></tr>
 <tr><th>Genitive</th><td>ἡμῶν</td><td>ὑμῶν</td><td>αὐτῶν</td><td>αὐτῶν</td><td>αὐτῶν</td><td>τούτων</td><td>τούτων</td><td>τούτων</td></tr>
 <tr><th>Dative</th><td>ἡμῖν</td><td>ὑμῖν</td><td>αὐτοῖς</td><td>αὐταῖς</td><td>αὐτοῖς</td><td>τούτοις</td><td>ταύταις</td><td>τούτοις</td></tr>
</table>(The English meanings for these forms are given in #A3.11.)
3.33 Notice the alternative forms which are found for the 1st person singular accusative, genitive and dative pronouns. In the style of some writers, the longer form is more emphatic than the shorter form; at other times the alternatives appear to be used without any distinction of meaning. Learn both forms of these pronouns together, as being alternatives. NOTE in #A3.13 how to distinguish ἡμεῖς and ὑμεῖς. 
3.34 The third person personal pronoun is αὐτός and means "he/she/it/they", etc., depending upon number, gender, and case. (It has some other meanings as well, to be introduced in later Lessons.) Notice in its paradigm that αὐτός has endings identical with those of the article (plus the standard Second Declension "-ς" ending in the masculine nominative singular which is lacking in the article). The paradigm of αὐτός is provided here for convenient reference. NOTE THAT if you know the article, you already know how to decline αὐτός: just add the endings of the twenty-four forms of the article to the stem αὐτ-, and also the -ς to the masculine nominative singular form, and there you have it! 
3.35 Words like "this/these" and "that/those" are called demonstratives. When a demonstrative is referring to something else (as in "this voice", "these words", "that hour", "those days"), it is a demonstrative adjective. It stands in what is called the "predicative position", in front of the article, as in οὗτος ὁ υἱός "this son" (John 12:34), or after the noun without the usual repetition of the article, ἡ φωνὴ αὕτη, "this voice" (John 12:30). (When used with a demonstrative the article is 

THREE: FIRST DECLENSION AND SECOND AORIST ACTIVE 43 
not translated into English.) Like all other adjectives, a demonstrative adjective will agree with what it is referring to in number, gender, and case: notice the feminine form αὕτη used with "voice", a feminine noun.
3.36 When a demonstrative is used without reference to any other person or thing, it is a demonstrative pronoun, and it means, according to gender, "this man" (οὗτος), "this woman" (αὕτη) or "this thing" (τοῦτο). Thus Luke 22:56, Καὶ οὗτος σὺν αὐτῷ ἦν, "This man was also with him"; Acts 9:36, αὕτη ἦν πλήρης ἀγαθῶν ἔργων, "This woman was full of good works"; 1 Timothy 2:3, τοῦτο καλόν, "This thing [is] good". Similarly for the plurals: οὗτοι means "these men" (or "these people", both men and women); αὗται, "these women"; and ταῦτα, "these things". 
3.37 From looking at the paradigm of οὗτος, you can see how very similar it is to αὐτός, and to the article. Like the article, it begins with a "τ" in all cases except the nominatives of the masculine and feminine singular and plural, where instead of the "τ" there is a rough breathing. οὗτος though, has the unique feature that there are two forms of the stem, one with the diphthong ου- and the other with αυ-: can you discern the pattern for when one or the other of these diph-thongs occurs in a word form? (If you cannot see the pattern, the answer is in #A3.16.) NOTE that only the breathing and accent differentiate αὐτή (feminine nominative singular of αὐτός) and αὕτη (feminine nominative singular of οὗτος); and αὐταί (feminine nominative plural of αὐτός) and αὕτη (feminine nominative plural of οὗτος): the letters of the words are the same. Care needs to be taken, therefore, to identify these forms correctly. This is the third occasion when the breathing/accent on a word needs particularly to be noted (see also #A1.37 and #2.88). 
3.38 ἐκεῖνος is the demonstrative pronoun/adjective meaning "that/that one". It is declined with the same endings as οὗτος but without any change in the stem of the word. Like οὗτος, it takes the predicative position when used with a noun (#3.35). 
3.4 CLUES FROM THE AGREEMENT OF THE ARTICLE AND ADJECTIVES 
3.41 Because the article and adjectives always agree with their noun in number, gender, and case, they often provide valuable clues to the identification of the number, gender, and case of nouns in a sentence when these might otherwise not be known to you. 
3.42 Thus when you first see the word μισθόν, it is not possible for you to know whether it is: 
(a) μισθός (masculine, D2.1), in the accusative singular (like κύριον), or 
(b) μισθόν (neuter, D2.2) (like ἔργον), in the nominative or accusative singular. This query is resolved when you see it with its article: τὸν μισθόν: if it were neuter, the form of the article would be "τό". 
Similarly, for βασιλείας: is this 
(a) βασιλείας (masculine, D1.4), i.e., the nominative singular of a First Declension masculine noun (like νεανίας), or 
(b) the genitive singular of βασιλεία (feminine, D1.1), i.e. a First Declension feminine (like καρδίας), 
or (c) the accusative plural of such a First Declension feminine? The article τῆς with βασιλείας resolves the question. Again, there are many word forms ending in "-α": ὄνομα, πνεῦμα, πρόβατα, θύρα, and so on. These forms can be clarified and deciphered when we take note of the form of the articles (and/or adjectives) used with them: τὸ ἐμὸν ὄνομα, τὸ πνεῦαμ, τὰ πρόβατα, ἡ θύρα. 
3.5 THE PRESENT IMPERATIVE, SECOND PERSON PLURAL 
3.51 In Lesson Two we noted the paradigm of λύω for the present indicative and interrogative active. We saw that the form λύετε could mean "you are loosing" or "are you loosing?" This particular form of the verb also happens to be the same for a command or request (that is, the imperative mode). So it can also mean, "Loose!" as an order to two or more people. Usually the context makes it plain whether the meaning is indicative, interrogative, or imperative. 

44 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
3.52 Where Knowing Greek Makes a Difference: In fact, a number of ambiguous sentences do exist in the Greek New Testament. 
(a) For example, Jesus said, IrlarE15E2E Eic ray 0E6V, Kai eig kpe IriCrTEljETE (John 14:1). Is he making a statement, asking a question, or telling his disciples something that they are to do? Or could it be that the first IrlarE15ETE, "believe", is indicative and the second is imperative? This would give the meaning as, "You believe in God; believe also in me." 
(b) The most theologically significant of these places of uncertainty is 1 Corinthians 12:31a. In this verse Paul speaks of the Corinthians earnestly desiring the higher gifts. But the Greek of this verse can either be translated, "But eagerly desire the greater gifts" (NIV text), taking the verb crioft-e as an imperative, or, "But you are eagerly desiring the greater gifts" (NIV margin), taking the alternative possible meaning of criA,ofirE as an indicative, a statement of fact. The interpre-tation of the verb as an imperative (that is, an instruction) would be that the Corinthians (and Christians in general) must eagerly desire the greater gifts — and these gifts would then be seen as certain ones selected from the catalogue in 1 Corinthians 12:7 to 10 and/or 27 to 30. On the other hand, the verb can be taken as indicative. Then the interpretation is that Paul is stating that what they are doing is eagerly desiring the (in their opinion) greater gifts, whereas the right concern that they should have, which he is now setting before them, is somewhat different: first of all, that all gifts are important for the functioning of the church, the body of Christ (12:7, 12-27); secondly, that the Christian does not choose his/her gifts but the Lord allocates them (12:11, 18, 28); and thirdly, that he (Paul) will now show them the most excellent way (chapter 13). Knowing Greek will not automatically solve ambiguities of this kind — but it certainly can enable us to be aware of them, should prevent us from building doctrinal structures on such ambiguous passages, and will (hopefully) encourage us to read them more carefully in their total context, and check them out in commentaries on the Greek text of the New Testament. 
3.6 TIME, ASPECT, AND CONJUGATION 
3.61 PAST TIME IN GREEK: Unlike English, Greek does not have a "past tense" as such. Instead, past time is indicated in Greek by prefixing the past time morph (called an augment) to the beginning of the verb lexal. There are two kinds of past time morph, one for verb lexals beginning with a consonant, and another for those beginning with a vowel. 
3.62 SYLLABIC AUGMENT: If the verb lexal begins with a consonant, the augment is an additive morph, the addition of E-. This is called the syllabic augment because it adds a syllable to the word. For example: with the syllabic augment added, the verb lexal PaA,- becomes OaA,-. 
3.63 TEMPORAL AUGMENT: If the verb lexal begins with a vowel, the augment consists instead of the lengthening of this vowel. Thus this augment is a process morph: a process of change which is applied to something that is already part of the verb form.'8 (For an earlier instance, see #2.82.) This process of lengthening to indicate past time is called the temporal augment. The temporal augment lengthens: a- into n-, e- into 77-, and o- into co-. (For example, the verb lexal eAB- becomes 7).1.9-.) If the short vowel which is being lengthened is part of a diphthong with iota, the iota goes subscript on the lengthened vowel (#1.56). (For example, the lexal of aireco, ante-, becomes 1:1TE-: see further, #4.51.) 
3.64 GREEK ASPECT: There are three tenses in Greek which take the augment, i.e. which indicate past time: the aorist (pronounced air-rist, rhyming with "fairest"), the imperfect, and the pluperfect. When they have the augment they all refer to the past; the difference between them is the kind of action which they indicate. This feature is called the verb's aspect. The aorist tense indicates punctiliar aspect'9: the whole aspect of the verb is regarded as a point — hence the name "punctiliar". The imperfect tense is durative aspect19: the emphasis of this aspect is upon the 

THREE: FIRST DECLENSION AND SECOND AORIST ACTIVE 45 
duration of the activity, which is being shown to be of an ongoing, repeated, or incomplete nature — action still in progress at the time being spoken of. The pluperfect tense is perfective aspect¹⁹: the action has been brought to a completion, with consequences that have been continuing. (Further details about aspect will be given in the next Lesson.)
3.65 THREE AORIST PATTERNS: In Greek there are three different patterns of the formation of the aorist tense. All three have exactly the same meaning. (This is similar in principle to the different ways which English has of forming a past tense: consider for example the English past tense forms of "bake" ["baked"], "make" ["made"], "take" ["took"], and "wake" ["woke"].) These three aorist patterns are called first aorist, second aorist, and third aorist. The "first aorist" pattern will be set out in Lesson Four, and the "third aorist" pattern in Lesson Seven. 
3.66 THE SECOND AORIST: The "second aorist" pattern prefixes the augment to the verb lexal, and adds a special set of pronoun endings which are somewhat different from the set for the present tense. The second aorist flexions are given in #3.81 for the lexals βαλ- (the verb stem of βάλλω, "I throw") and ἐλθ- (which has no durative [present] form — it has to make use of the durative flexions of another verb, ἔρχομαι, "I come"; see #3.69). 
3.67 THREE CONJUGATIONS: Families of verbs are called conjugations. There are three verb "families" or conjugations in New Testament Greek. Verbs which possess second aorist forms comprise the Second Conjugation (C2); verbs which have third aorist forms and/or a lexical form ending in -μι comprise the Third Conjugation (C3); all other verbs have first aorist forms, conjugate their flexions like λύω, and comprise the First Conjugation (C1). 
3.68 INHERENT ASPECT: A verb lexal possesses inherent aspect — that is, a lexal always is, in itself, either durative or punctiliar aspect. First Conjugation verbs have durative lexals; Second and Third Conjugation verbs have punctiliar lexals. 
3.69 SUPPLETIVE VERBS: Seven verbs which are Second Conjugation (and whose lexals therefore are inherently punctiliar) are defective and are incapable of forming a present tense (durative) form, and instead have to utilize the durative forms from another defective verb. These are known as suppletive verbs. Three of these verbs are to be noted this Lesson, all of which are very common in the Greek New Testament: 

<table>
 <tr><th>Lexal</th><th>Second Aorist</th><th>Associated Present Tense</th></tr>
 <tr>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><td>ἐλθ-</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἰδ-</td></tr>
 <tr><td>εἰπ-</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><td>ἦλθον</td><td>I came</td></tr>
 <tr><td>εἶδον</td><td>I saw</td></tr>
 <tr><td>εἶπον</td><td>I spoke/said</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><td>ἔρχομαι</td><td>I come</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ὁράω</td><td>I see</td></tr>
 <tr><td>λέγω</td><td>I speak/say</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 </tr>
</table>

NOTE: Make out vocabulary cards for these words. 

3.7 COMPOUND VERBS 
Associated Present Tense 4)xo,uat I come opaw I see 2Leyo) I speak/say
3.71 A very large number of verbs in the Greek New Testament are compound verbs, that is, verbs compounded of a simple or simplex verb and a preposition that has been added to the beginning of it. The meaning of the simplex verb is then affected by the preposition. 
3.72 Sometimes compound verbs have meanings that are a compound of the meanings of the simplex verb and the preposition. Examples: ἐκ/ἐξ, "out [of]"; βάλλω, "I throw"; ἐκβάλλω, "I throw out, drive out, send away"; ἦλθον, "I came"; ἐξῆλθον, "I came out, departed". In contrast, numerous other compound verbs have meanings that are quite different from those of the preposition plus original simplex verbs. Thus: ἀπό, "from"; ἔχω, "I have"; ἀπέχω, "I have in full". 

46 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
3.73 NOTE: When a compound verb is augmented, the augment goes between the preposition and the simplex verb. Thus: the second aorist form ἐξέβαλον, from ἐκβάλλω. (NOTE ALSO that the preposition in front of the augment is ἐξ not ἐκ, because in this form of the word it is followed by a vowel — see #1.75.) 
3.8 PARADIGMS FOR THE IMPERFECT OF EIMI AND THE SECOND AORIST ACTIVE 

<table>
 <tr><td>3.81</td><td>IMPERFECT OF εἰμί</td><td style = "text-align: center">SECOND AORIST ACTIVE</td></tr>
 <tr>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><td style="text-align: right">S 1</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="text-align: right">2</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="text-align: right">3</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="text-align: right">P 1</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="text-align: right">2</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="text-align: right">3</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><td>ἤμην</td><td>I was</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἦς/ἦσθα</td><td>you were</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἦν</td><td>he/she/it was</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἤμεθα</td><td>we were</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἦτε</td><td>you were</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἦσαν</td><td>they were</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 <td>
 <table>

 <tr><td>ἔβαλον</td><td>I threw</td><td>ἦλθον</td><td>I came</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἔβαλες</td><td>you threw</td><td>ἦλθες</td><td>you came</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἔβαλε(ν)</td><td>he/she/it threw</td><td>ἦλθε(ν)</td><td>he/she/it came</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἐβάλομεν</td><td>we threw</td><td>ἤλθομεν</td><td>we came</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἐβάλετε</td><td>you threw</td><td>ἤλθετε</td><td>you came</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἔβαλον</td><td>they threw</td><td>ἦλθον</td><td>they came</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 </tr>
</table>

 



3.82 The area of meaning for ἦλθον includes "I went" as well as "I came". 
3.83 Notice that the second aorist forms for the first person singular and for the third person plural are identical. When one of these forms is encountered, it is therefore necessary to examine the context carefully for clues that indicate which of these two possibilities is in fact the right one. Usually such indications will be available — otherwise the sentence will be ambiguous in Greek. 
3.9 THE VERB MORPH SLOTS 
3.91 All the information about the total meaning of a particular verb form is conveyed through the morphs of which it is made up. These morphs can be thought of in various ways (READ #A3.3). It is important to be able to recognize each morph swiftly, and thus to "read" the information that it contains. 
3.92 There are altogether nine categories of morph which can occur in a verb (though no more than six will be found in any given verb form). The places where these morphs can occur in a verb are called morph slots.
3.93 The morphs of a verb can be set out so as to show which slot each occupies. Identifying the morphs of a verb form in this way is called morphological analysis" or morphologizing. The neutral morph is placed in the aspect slot (Slot 7). The verbs that we have met in Lessons Two and Three have morphs which occupy either two, three, four or five of the nine available slots. They can be shown as follows (using as an example the first person plural forms of εἰμί, λύω, βάλλω, ἐκβάλλω): 
3.94 Where a morph consists of the lengthening of a phoneme, this is indicated by a capital L in the column for that morph. Thus: 

<table>
 <tr><th>VERB FORM  </th><th>1 PREPOSITION</th><th>2 PAST</th><th>3  </th><th>4 LEXAL</th><th>5  </th><th>6  </th><th>7 ASPECT</th><th>8  </th><th>9 ENDING</th></tr>
 <tr><td style = "text-align: right;">ἐσμεν</td><td style = "text-align: center;"></td><td style = "text-align: center;"></td><td></td><td style = "text-align: center;">ἐσ</td><td></td><td></td><td style = "text-align: center;"></td><td></td><td style = "text-align: center;">μεν</td></tr>
 <tr><td style = "text-align: right;">λύομεν</td><td style = "text-align: center;"></td><td style = "text-align: center;"></td><td></td><td style = "text-align: center;">λυ</td><td></td><td></td><td style = "text-align: center;">ο</td><td></td><td style = "text-align: center;">μεν</td></tr>
 <tr><td style = "text-align: right;">ἐβάλομεν</td><td style = "text-align: center;"></td><td style = "text-align: center;">ἐ</td><td></td><td style = "text-align: center;">βαλ</td><td></td><td></td><td style = "text-align: center;">ο</td><td></td><td style = "text-align: center;">μεν</td></tr>
 <tr><td style = "text-align: right;">ἐξεβάλομεν</td><td style = "text-align: center;">ἐξ</td><td style = "text-align: center;">ε</td><td></td><td style = "text-align: center;">βαλ</td><td></td><td></td><td style = "text-align: center;">ο</td><td></td><td style = "text-align: center;">μεν</td></tr>
 <tr><td style = "text-align: right;">λύω</td><td style = "text-align: center;"></td><td style = "text-align: center;"></td><td></td><td style = "text-align: center;">λυ</td><td></td><td></td><td style = "text-align: center;">ο</td><td></td><td style = "text-align: center;">L(="I")</td></tr>
 <tr><td style = "text-align: right;">ἦλθον</td><td style = "text-align: center;"></td><td style = "text-align: center;">L</td><td></td><td style = "text-align: center;">ἐλθ</td><td></td><td></td><td style = "text-align: center;">ο</td><td></td><td style = "text-align: center;">ν</td></tr>
 <tr><td style = "text-align: right;">ἐξήλθετε</td><td style = "text-align: center;">ἐξ</td><td style = "text-align: center;">L</td><td></td><td style = "text-align: center;">ελθ</td><td></td><td></td><td style = "text-align: center;">ε</td><td></td><td style = "text-align: center;">τε</td></tr>
</table>

THREE: FIRST DECLENSION AND SECOND AORIST ACTIVE 47 
ASSIGNMENTS ON LESSON THREE 
1. PARADIGMS FOR LEARNING: The paradigms which now need to be learnt by heart are:     4. The first and second person personal pronouns (ἐγώ and σύ, #3.32);     5. The imperfect of εἰμί (#3.81);     6. The paradigm of the second aorist (either ἔβαλον or ἦλθον, #3.81). NOTE: Follow the same learning pattern as for previous Lessons, and make use of the Practice Sheet in your Workbook. 
2. LEARNING THE FIRST DECLENSION: Compare the feminine flexion of the article with the five paradigms of the First Declension. Learn to recognize the forms of the First Declension by noting similarities and differences between their endings and the article. 
3. APPENDIX: READ CAREFULLY the additional information set out in Appendix #A3. 
4. WORKBOOK: ANSWER THE QUESTIONS in your Workbook about this Lesson. 
5. TRANSLATION EXERCISES A AND B: Do the English into Greek exercises, and then read and translate literally the thirty Selections from the Greek New Testament. NOTE: To do this work you will need to use the paradigms set for learning this Lesson, together with the paradigms and vocabulary of the previous Lessons. The new prepositions given below, and the case(s) which they take, should be carefully noted. Most of the Selections introduce new vocabulary which is then used again in the Selections which follow. LEARN each unknown word as you use it. 
6. VOCABULARY CARDS: Write out Vocabulary Cards for the new words introduced in this Lesson, putting 3 (for -Lesson Three") in the top lefthand corner of each side of each Card. Add these Cards to your collection, and place them all in alphabetical order. [Don't forget to put on your Preposition Cards the case(s) taken by each preposition.] 
PREPOSITIONS 

<table>
 <tr>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><td>ἀπό</td><td>(+gen)</td><td>from</td></tr>
 <tr><td>εἰς</td><td>(+acc)</td><td>into to (for)</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἐν</td><td>(+dat)</td><td>in, at, with (#2.65)</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἔναντι</td><td>(+gen)</td><td>in the presence of</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><td>ἐντός</td><td></td><td>(+gen)</td><td>within, in the midst of</td></tr>
 <tr><td>μετά, μετ’, μεθ’</td><td>{</td><td>(+acc) (+gen)</td><td>after with</td></tr>
 <tr><td>παρά</td><td></td><td>(+acc)</td><td>beside</td></tr>
 <tr><td>περί</td><td></td><td>(+gen)</td><td>concerning</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 </tr>
</table>


A. TRANSLATION FROM ENGLISH INTO GREEK 
(This may be done as an exercise in class at the end of the Lesson, or set as an assignment.) 
For needed vocabulary, check through the English side of your Vocabulary Cards. 
<table>
 <tr><td>A1.</td><td>"We (emphatic) have the peace of God in our hearts."</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A2.</td><td>Concerning John, Jesus said to his disciples,</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A3.</td><td>"I say to you, he (emphatic) is a prophet of God."</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A4.</td><td>"O Lord, you are sending your prophets to us."</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A5.</td><td>God sends his son into our world, and we see his glory.</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A6.</td><td>Jesus, you came to us out of heaven, and you spoke to me.</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A7.</td><td>The teacher said, "I (emphatic) tell you, the law is good."</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A8.</td><td>"I perceive that this is the word of truth from God."</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A9.</td><td>The king sees Jesus but does not hear his voice.</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A10.</td><td>They threw the lamb into the field. This was not good.</td></tr>
</table>


48 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 

<table>
 <tr><td>A11.</td><td>Jesus said to the man, "You (emphatic) have a demon."</td></tr>
 <tr><td>Al2.</td><td>The Lord came into the field with his disciples.</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A13.</td><td>The woman saw Jesus and said, "I see him beside my house."</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A14.</td><td>She came into her house and Jesus hears her voice.</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A15.</td><td>She (emphatic) says, "Does he see me and is he speaking to me?"</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A16.</td><td>Jesus said to her, "I saw that you were in that place."</td></tr>
</table>


B. SELECTIONS FROM THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
(NOTE: These are Selections from the verses listed; only a part of the verse is being set for you to read at this stage.)

<table>
 <tr><td> </td><th>SELECTION</th><th>NOTES AND NEW WORDS</th></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B1.</td><td>Τίς ἐστιν οὗτος ὁ υἱὸς τοῦ ἀνθρώπου; (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 12:34)</td><td>Σαμαρείτης, -ου, ὁ: a Samaritan</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B2.</td><td>Ἰδοὺ γάρ, ἡ βασιλεία τοῦ θεοῦ ἐντὸς ὑμῶν ἐστίν. (ΚΑΤΑ ΛΟΥΚΑΝ 17:21)</td><td>Σίμων: Simon; Ἰωνᾶς, -ᾶ, ὁ: Jonas</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B3.</td><td>Καὶ σὺ ἦσθα μετὰ Ἰησοῦ τοῦ Γαλιλαίου. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 26:69)</td><td>Γαλιλαῖος -α -ον: Galilean</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B4.</td><td>Ὁ πατὴρ ἡμῶν Ἀβραάμ ἐστιν. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 8:39)</td><td>*πατήρ, -τρός, ὁ: father</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B5.</td><td>εἶπον, Υἱὸς τοῦ θεοῦ εἰμι; (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 10:36)</td><td>*εἶπον: I said [#3.69]</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B6.</td><td>πιστεύετε εἰς τὸν θεόν, καὶ εἰς ἐμὲ πιστεύετε. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 14:1)</td><td>*πιστεύω: I believe</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B7.</td><td>Ταῦτα δὲ ὑμῖν ἐξ ἀρχῆς οὐκ εἶπον, ὅτι μεθ’ ὑμῶν ἤμην. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 16:4)</td><td>*ἀρχή, -ῆς, ἡ: beginning (ruler); *ὅτι: because (that)</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B8.</td><td>Θωμᾶς … εἶπεν αὐτῷ, Ὁ κύριός μου καὶ ὁ θεός μου. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 20:28)</td><td>Θωμᾶς, -ᾶ, ὁ: Thomas</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B9.</td><td>Ἡ γὰρ καρδία σου οὐκ ἔστιν εὐθεῖα ἐνώπιον τοῦ θεοῦ. (ΠΡΑΞΕΙΣ ΑΠΟΣΤΟΛΩΝ 8:21)</td><td>εὐθεῖα: right, upright (fem. adj.)</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B10.</td><td>ἔσται ὁ υἱὸς τοῦ ἀνθρώπου ἐν τῇ καρδίᾳ τῆς γῆς τρεῖς ἡμέρας καὶ τρεῖς νύκτας. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 12:40) </td><td>ἔσται: [he] will be; *τρεῖς: three; *νύξ, -υκτός, ἡ night</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B11.</td><td>ἦλθεν ὁ Ἰησοῦς εἰς τὴν Γαλιλαίαν, κηρύσσων τὸ εὐαγγέλιον τῆς βασιλείας τοῦ θεοῦ, … πιστεύετε ἐν τῷ εὐαγγελίῳ (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΡΚΟΝ 1:14-15)</td><td>*ἦλθον: I came [#3.69]; Γαλιλαία, -ας, ἡ: Galilee; *κηρύσσων: preaching (participle)</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B12.</td><td>Κύριε, κύριε, οὐ τῷ σῷ ὀνόματι … δαιμόνια ἐξεβάλομεν (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 7:22)</td><td>*ὄνομα, -ατος, τό: name; *ἐκβάλλω: I drive out, cast out</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B13.</td><td>Τὸ βάπτισμα Ἰωάννου ἐξ οὐρανοῦ ἦν, ἢ ἐξ ἀνθρώπων; (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΡΚΟΝ 11:30)</td><td>βάπτισμα, -ατος, τό: baptism; *ἤ: or (than)</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B14.</td><td>Καὶ ὁ Ἰησοῦς … εἶπεν αὐτῷ, Οὐ μακρὰν εἶ ἀπὸ τῆς βασιλείας τοῦ θεοῦ. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΡΚΟΝ 12:34)</td><td>μακράν: far [adverb]</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;">B15.</td><td>Σὺ εἶ μαθητὴς ἐκείνου· ἡμεῖς δὲ τοῦ Μωσέως ἐσμὲν μαθηταί. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 9:28)</td><td>*μαθητής, -οῦ, ὁ: disciple; *ἐκεῖνος -η -ο: that, that one; Μωϋσεύς, -έως, ὁ: Moses</td></tr>
</table>




THREE: FIRST DECLENSION AND SECOND AORIST ACTIVE 49 

<table>
 <tr><td> </td><th>SELECTION</th><th>NOTES AND NEW WORDS</th></tr>
 <tr><td>B16.</td><td>(ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 18:28)</td><td>*ἄγω: I lead, bring; Καϊάφας: Caiaphas; πραιτώριον, -ου, τό: governor's residence</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B17.</td><td>(ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 19:4)</td><td>*ἐξῆλθον: I came out; *πάλιν: again, once again; *ἔξω: outside</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B18.</td><td>(ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 21:8)</td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><td>B19.</td><td>(ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 10:3, 7)</td><td>πρόβατον, -ου, τό: sheep; *ἀκούω: I hear (takes genitive: #A3.42); *ἀμήν: truly; θύρα, -ας, ἡ; door</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B20.</td><td>(ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 15:33)</td><td>ἐρημία, -ας, ἡ: a desert, deserted place</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B21.</td><td>(ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 6:2)</td><td>ἀπέχω: I receive (have) in full; μισθός, -ου, ὁ: reward (pay, wages)</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B22.</td><td>(ΑΠΟΚΑΛΥΨΙΣ ΙΩΑΝΝΟΥ 4:1)</td><td>*εἶδον: I saw, looked [#3.69]; ἀνεῳγμένη: standing open (participle)</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B23.</td><td>(ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 10:16)</td><td>*ὡς: as, like; *μέσος, -η, -ον: the midst; λύκος, -ου, ὁ: wolf</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B24.</td><td>(ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 5:48)</td><td>ἔσεσθε: you shall be (plural); τέλειος, -α, -ον: mature, perfect; οὐράνιος, -ον: heavenly</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B25.</td><td>(ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 12:41)</td><td>Ἠσαΐας, -ου, ὁ: Isaiah; *δόξα, -ης, ἡ: glory</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B26.</td><td>(ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 4:18)</td><td>*περιπατῶν: walking; *θάλασσα, -ης, ἡ: sea; *δύο: two; *ἀδελφός, -οῦ, ὁ: brother; λεγόμενον: called (participle); Ἀνδρέας, -ου, ὁ: Andrew</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B27.</td><td>(ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΡΚΟΝ 1:3)</td><td>Podivwc: of one crying aloud (gen ptc); e'pri,uog, -ov, r): deserted place, desert; erotydco-are: prepare; *6(56g, -of), rj: way</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B28.</td><td>(ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 18:20)</td><td>015: where; o-vvriypevot: gathered together; *eyóg, kyri, kiloV: my (adjective); *kicel.: there</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B29.</td><td>(ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΡΚΟΝ 1:12)</td><td>*ef)Oog: immediately; *rver),Lia, -aro; To: Spirit (spirit), breath, wind</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B3O.</td><td>(ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 1:21-23)</td><td>Miag, -ov, 6: Elijah; creavwf): yourself (gen.); *Nn: he said; efAjvare: make straight (imperative); *twee*: just as</td></tr>
</table>

<hr>
</div>

<div id="L4" class="Lesson">
LESSON FOUR 
THE RELATIVE PRONOUN AND THE ACTIVE VOICE 
4.1 THE RELATIVE PRONOUN
4.11 The relative pronoun is "who", "whose", "what", "which", etc. The paradigm for this is very similar to that for the article (see #2.4) except (a) that it always has an accent (the article does not have an accent in the forms ὁ, ἡ, οἱ and αἱ); (b) that it always commences with a rough breathing and never with a "τ"; and (c) that the masculine nominative singular has the standard ending "ς" (the corresponding form of the article is ὁ). 
4.12 NOTE that the relative pronoun consists in fact solely of the endings for οὗτος (see #3,32), and its stem is simply the rough breathing. 
 

<table>
 <tr><td>4.13</td><td></td><th>Masc.</th><td></td><th>Fem.</th><th>Neut.</th><td></td></tr>
 <tr><th>SINGULAR</th><th>Nominative</th><td>ὅς</td><td>who</td><td>ἥ</td><td>ὅ</td><td>which/what</td></tr>
 <tr><td></td><th>Accusative</th><td>ὅν</td><td>whom</td><td>ἥν</td><td>ὅ</td><td>which/what</td></tr>
 <tr><td></td><th>Genitive</th><td>οὗ</td><td>whose</td><td>ἧς</td><td>οὗ</td><td>of which/what</td></tr>
 <tr><td></td><th>Dative</th><td>ᾧ</td><td>to/for whom</td><td>ᾗ</td><td>ᾧ</td><td>to/for which/what</td></tr>
 <tr><th>PLURAL</th><th>Nominative</th><td>οἵ</td><td>who</td><td>αἵ</td><td>ἅ</td><td>which/what</td></tr>
 <tr><td></td><th>Accusative</th><td>οὕς</td><td>whom</td><td>ἅς</td><td>ἅ</td><td>which/what</td></tr>
 <tr><td></td><th>Genitive</th><td>ὧν</td><td>whose</td><td>ὧν</td><td>ὧν</td><td>of which/what</td></tr>
 <tr><td></td><th>Dative</th><td>οἷς</td><td>to/for whom</td><td>αἷς</td><td>οἷς</td><td>to/for which/what</td></tr>
</table>

4.14 NOTE the accent: always an acute on the nominative and accusative forms (and under the rules of accentuation this usually changes to a grave before following words - see #E6); always a circumflex on the genitive and dative forms. 
4.15 NOTE also that there are several forms of the relative pronoun which are differentiated from other words only by their accent and/or breathing: (a) the only difference between the forms ὅ, ἥ, οἵ and αἵ and forms for the article is that the relative pronoun has an accent (either an acute or a grave) while the article does not have an accent; (b) the word ἤ, which means "or" (L3/B13) or "than" (#7.48), differs in accent and breathing, and in breathing, respectively from the nominative singular feminine article ἡ and the nominative singular feminine relative ἥ; (c) compare similarly the accusative singular feminine relative ἥν with ἦν, the third person singular imperfect "he/she/it was" form from εἰμί (#3.81), and the genitive ἧς with ἦς, "you (singular) were" form from εἰμί; (d) the word "where", οὗ (see L3/B28) is identical with the masculine/neuter genitive singular relative οὗ, and differs in accent and breathing from οὐ, "not" (#2.94). (For other important accents, see #A4.23.)
4.16 The relative pronoun takes the gender and number of the word to which it refers (called its antecedent), and the case that is appropriate for its function in its own clause. However, in some sentences the writer will be found to have put the relative into the case of its antecedent. This is referred to as the "attraction of the relative". 
4.17 The translation of the relative (for both singular and plural) is usually "who" etc. if personal gender (that is, masculine or feminine), or "what" or "which" etc. if neuter. Examples: "The Lord whom you seek will suddenly come ..."; "The body of which you all are members ..."; "You are my friends if you do what I command you." It needs to be remembered that "who", "what" and "which" are used according to the gender of the antecedent in English - the gender in Greek may be different (#2.13). in many cases the relative may be best translated "that": "The words that I have spoken to you ...". 
50 
FOUR: THE RELATIVE PRONOUN AND THE ACTIVE VOICE 51 
4.2 THE REST OF THE ACTIVE VERB 
4.21 So far we have met the present and second aorist of the indicative active verb (#2.81 and #3.81). Here now are the flexions for the remaining tenses and modes of the active of λύω: 

<table>
 <tr><td></td><th>INDICATIVE</th><th>SUBJUNCTIVE</th></tr>
 <tr>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><th> </th><td></td></tr>
 <tr><td>Singular</td><td>1</td></tr>
 <tr><td></td><td>2</td></tr>
 <tr><td></td><td>3</td></tr>
 <tr><td>Plural</td><td>1</td></tr>
 <tr><td></td><td>2</td></tr>
 <tr><td></td><td>3</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><th>Future</th><th>Imperfect</th><th>1st Aorist</th><th>Perfect</th></tr>
 <tr><td>λύσω</td><td>ἔλυον</td><td>ἔλυσα</td><td>λέλυκα</td></tr>
 <tr><td>λύσεις</td><td>ἔλυες</td><td>ἔλυσας</td><td>λέλυκας</td></tr>
 <tr><td>λύσει</td><td>ἔλυε(ν)</td><td>ἔλυσε(ν)</td><td>λέλυκε(ν)</td></tr>
 <tr><td>λύσομεν</td><td>ἐλύομεν</td><td>ἐλύσαμεν</td><td>λελύκαμεν</td></tr>
 <tr><td>λύσετε</td><td>ἐλύετε</td><td>ἐλύσατε</td><td>λελύκατε</td></tr>
 <tr><td>λύσουσι(ν)</td><td>ἔλυον</td><td>ἔλυσαν</td><td>λελύκασι(ν)</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><th>Present</th><th>Aorist</th></tr>
 <tr><td>λύω</td><td>λύσω</td></tr>
 <tr><td>λύῃς</td><td>λύσῃς</td></tr>
 <tr><td>λύῃ</td><td>λύσῃ</td></tr>
 <tr><td>λύωμεν</td><td>λύσωμεν</td></tr>
 <tr><td>λύητε</td><td>λύσητε</td></tr>
 <tr><td>λύωσι(ν)</td><td>λύσωσι(ν)</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 </tr>
</table>


<table>
 <tr><td></td><td></td><th>IMPERATIVE</th><th>Present</th><th>Aorist</th><th>Perfect</th><th> </th></tr>
 <tr><td>Singular</td><td>2</td><td>loose! (singular)</td><td>λῦε</td><td>λῦσον</td><td>(No forms</td></tr>
 <tr><td></td><td>3</td><td>let him loose (something)</td><td>λυέτω</td><td>λυσάτω</td><td>occur in</td></tr>
 <tr><td>Plural</td><td>2</td><td>loose! (plural)</td><td>λύετε</td><td>λύσατε</td><td>the New</td></tr>
 <tr><td></td><td>3</td><td>let them loose (something)</td><td>λυέτωσαν</td><td>λυσάτωσαν</td><td>Testament)</td></tr>
</table>


<table>
 <tr><th>INFINITIVE</th><td></td><td>to loose</td><td>λύειν</td><td>λῦσαι</td><td>λελυκέναι</td><td>to have loosed</td></tr>
 <tr><th>PARTICIPLE</th><th>Masculine</th><td>loosing</td><td>λύων</td><td>λύσας</td><td>λελυκώς</td><td>having loosed</td></tr>
 <tr><td></td><th>Feminine</th><td></td><td>λύουσα</td><td>λύσασα</td><td>λελυκυῖα</td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><td></td><th>Neuter</th><td></td><td>λῦον</td><td>λῦσαν</td><td>λελυκός</td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><td></td><th>M/N Genitive</th><td></td><td>λύοντος</td><td>λύσαντος</td><td>λελυκότος</td><td></td></tr>
</table>

4.22 Greek indicates future time by adding the future time morph, -σ-, to the end of the verb lexal, in front of the present tense endings. Thus we can notice that the only difference between the forms of the present tense (#2.81) and the future tense is that the future tense forms contain the future time morph, -σ-. So λύσω means, "I will loose" (see further, #A4.12). The future tense forms thus have four morphs (seen best in, say, a form like λύσομεν): the lexal, future morph, neutral morph (#2.77), and pronoun morph. (Can you identify which they each are in λύσομεν?) 
4.23 As we saw last Lesson (#3.61), Greek indicates past time by adding the past time morph, ε-, to the beginning of a verb lexal. Two of the above tenses, the imperfect and the first aorist, have ε-prefixed to their forms in the Indicative Mode, and this thus indicates that these are past time flexions. λύω is the model verb for the First Conjugation; that is, its aorist active indicative flexion follows, and thus shows us, the first aorist pattern.) 
4.3 ASPECT 
4.31 In Greek, the most important aspect of tense is the kind of action that is being referred to. This is called aspect, and it is where the major distinction between the different tenses lies. There are three aspects which a Greek verb can have: a verb denotes either: 
(a) Durative, that is, linear or progressive action (where the emphasis is upon the duration or continuation of the action, so that it refers to an ongoing, repeated or incomplete action). Durative aspect is expressed by the present and imperfect tenses. 
(b) Punctiliar, that is, point-of-time action (where the reference is to a specific, completed or once-for-all action, or where an action is viewed in its totality no matter how long it lasted, or the point of commencing or completing an action is being stressed). Punctiliar aspect is expressed by the aorist tense. 
(c) Perfective, that is, accomplished action (where the present state resulting from, and/or present consequence of, a prior action are being stressed; "the meaning of the perfect is I am in the position of having done").²⁰ Perfective aspect is expressed by the present perfect and pluperfect tenses. (There is also a rare future perfect: See #C0.33.) 

52 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
4.32 These aspects can be shown diagrammatically as: 

<table>
 <tr><td>(a)</td><td>Durative Aspect (Present and Imperfect Tenses):     Linear action:</td><td style="text-align: center;"> ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ or ••••••••••••• ongoing action or repeated action</td></tr>
 <tr><td>(b)</td><td>Punctiliar Aspect (Aorist Tense):     Point-of-time action:</td><td style="text-align: center;"> • or ⚪ action viewed in its totality</td></tr>
 <tr><td>(c)</td><td>Perfective Aspect (Present Perfect and Pluperfect Tenses):     Accomplished action:</td><td style="text-align: center;"> •⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ action leading to a state</td></tr>
</table>

4.33 The present and imperfect tenses are always durative in aspect; the aorist is always punctiliar, and the present perfect (sometimes referred to simply as "the perfect") and pluperfect (the past tense of the perfect) are always perfective. The future tense stands outside the aspect system of the verb. and does not have any inherent aspect. Sometimes its meaning is durative (that is, referring to an ongoing action in the future); in some usages it may have punctiliar significance; and often the kind of action in the future is not indicated in the context. But in any case, if a future verb does have any such significance, this is only because of the lexical meaning of a given verb or because of the way a verb is being used in a particular context.²¹ 
4.34 The pluperfect tense is quite rare in the Greek New Testament (it occurs only 86 times²²), and therefore is not set out here; but it is a part of the verb system available for the use of the Greek speaker/writer, and it will be introduced in #7.8 — it is set out in Appendix C, #C1.1. 
4.35 THE VERB'S ASPECT MORPH SLOT: How is aspect indicated in a verb? This differs to some extent depending upon whether the verb is First, Second, or Third Conjugation (#3.67). In First Conjugation verbs, aspect is indicated by the morph which is used in the verb's Aspect Morph Slot. We have seen (#3.93) that the structure of a verb consists of nine morph slots one of which — Slot 7 — is the Aspect Morph Slot. A different morph is placed in this slot to indicate forms of the durative, punctiliar, and perfective flexions of a verb.
4.36 INDICATING DURATIVE ASPECT: The lexal of every First Conjugation verb is inherently durative (#3.68), and therefore these verbs do not require to take any additional morph to make them durative: they already are durative. So when a durative form of a verb is being used, it has the neutral morph (-e- or -0-: see #2,77) in the aspect slot. The neutral morph has a "neutral" effect on the verb's aspect; the use of the neutral morph is indicating, "In this verb form, aspect is not being changed — the verb's inherent aspect still applies," Putting it round the other way: seeing that a First Conjugation verb is inherently durative, when such a verb form has the neutral morph in its Aspect Morph Slot that verb form must be either present or imperfect (the two durative tenses). It is worth noting at this point that the neutral morph is also found in the future tense (#4.22) and in the Second Aorist tense (that is, the aorist tense of the Second Conjugation; #3.81), again with the meaning that aspect is not being affected (the future tense stands outside the aspect system [#4.33], and the lexal of Second Conjugation verbs is inherently punctiliar [#3.68]). 
4.37 INDICATING PUNCTILIAR ASPECT: A First Conjugation verb indicates punctiliar aspect by taking the punctiliar morph -σα- in the aspect slot (Slot 7) instead of the neutral morph. The effect of putting the punctiliar morph in the aspect slot is to change the verb form to punctiliar aspect. This morph is an elision morph, which means that whenever it is followed by a vowel in the verb's next morph the punctiliar morph -σα- elides its vowel, -α-, to become simply -σ-. The situation can be summed up thus: the punctiliar morph is 
(a) -σα- before consonants and form final (that is, when it is at the end of the word form); and 
(b) -σ- before vowels. There are one complete flexion (the subjunctive) and three individual forms in the above λύω paradigm (#4.21) where the next morphs commence with a vowel: 3rd person singular indicative, -ε-; 2nd person singular imperative, -ον; and the infinitive, -αι (note that the -α- here is part of the infinitive morph, or else under this elision rule it would have elided in front of the -ι). Therefore in all these cases the punctiliar morph consists of just -σ-, as a result of the elision of the -α-. 
FOUR: THE RELATIVE PRONOUN AND THE ACTIVE VOICE 53 
NOTE VERY CAREFULLY that the -σ- of the punctiliar morph will always by followed by a vowel: either the -α- of its own morph, or else the vowel that has caused that -α- to elide; therefore a -σ- followed by a consonant could NEVER be the punctiliar morph. The aorist, ἔλυσα, means "I loosed" [see #A4.13(a)]. 
4.38 INDICATING PERFECTIVE ASPECT: Perfective aspect is indicated by the perfective morph -κα- in the aspect slot (Slot 7). The effect of putting the perfective morph in the aspect slot is to change the verb form to perfective aspect. Like the other aspect morphs, the perfective morph, -κα- is an elision morph, the -α- eliding before a following vowel. 
NOTICE that this -κα- becomes -κε- in one particular form, in front of the infinitive ending -ναι. 
4.39 REDUPLICATION: There is a second distinguishing feature of the perfective aspect, called reduplication, which means taking the first letter of the lexal, if it is a single consonant, and doubling it, and then separating the two letters with the vowel -ε-. Thus λυ- becomes first λλυ- and then λελυ. This creates the reduplication morph (for λύω, λε-), which occupies Slot 3 of the verb's nine morph slots. The perfect, λέλυκα, means "I have loosed". [See #A4.13(b) and A4.14.] 
4.4 MODE 
4.41 THE CONCEPT OF MODE: In #2.72 we were introduced to the concept of the verb's mode. This feature of the verb is referred to by some grammarians as "mood", but as it deals with the type of statement being made about an action and not with overtones of feelings, "mode" (the term used by Robertson, Davis, and others) is a more appropriate and much preferable designation. A. T. Robertson says, "Mode (Latin, modus) deals with the manner of the affirmation. Voice and tense deal with the action, not the affirmation ... The modes, like the tenses, deal with the statement, not with the facts in the case."17 
4.42 INDICATIVE MODE: So far we have been learning about flexions of the verb's indicative mode. The indicative mode "indicates" something; i.e. it is used for making a statement (or asking a question) about what is: the actual circumstances of whatever is being considered. From the flexions of λύω given in #4.21, notice that the aorist tense only has the augment in the indicative mode, for only in the indicative does the aorist refer to past time. In contrast, the aorist does not have the augment in the subjunctive, imperative, infinitive, or participle (or optative), because these do NOT refer to past time. They refer to punctiliar aspect, in contrast with the present tense, which designates durative aspect. The reduplication in the perfect tense is a perfective aspect morph, and quite unrelated to past time, and so is kept in all modes.
4.43 SUBJUNCTIVE MODE: The next mode for us to learn is the subjunctive mode. This mode is used when making a statement (or asking a question) about what might be: the conditional, the potential, the possible, the hypothetical, etc. It is therefore translated by words such as "may", "might", "could", "would", "should", "[if he] were to", "[if it] happens to", and similarly. Your translation of a subjunctive should aim to bring out the uncertainty which is being indicated by the use of this mode. 
4.44 TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE: 
    (a) Tenses and Meanings: There are flexions of the subjunctive mode for each of the three aspects, durative, punctiliar, and perfective. But although a perfect subjunctive existed, it was rarely used — the only two tenses of the subjunctive in common use were the present and aorist. The difference between them is solely one of aspect, that is, type of action (#4.31, #4.32). 
    (b) Subjunctive Morph: The subjunctive morph is a process morph¹⁸ not an additive morph - it is a process of change, something done to a word form, not something added to it. The subjunctive morph is the lengthening of the neutral morph. Thus the neutral morph is the carrier for the subjunctive process morph. 

54 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
(c) Present Subjunctive: A comparison of the present subjunctive with the present indicative (#4,21 with #2.81) will reveal the nature of the subjunctive process morph: the lengthening of the neutral morph in each form. Note that it cannot lengthen further when it is already long (thus, indicative first person singular form λύω remains λύω in the subjunctive). Where the neutral morph is part of a diphthong with ι the ι goes subscript to the lengthened neutral morph (thus, λύεις ⟶ λύῃς, λύει ⟶ λύῃ); where the neutral morph is part of a diphthong with υ the -υ- is lost from the word altogether (thus, λύουσιν ⟶ λύωσιν). 
(d) Aorist Subjunctive: The aorist subjunctive flexion is formed from the present subjunc-tive by adding the punctiliar morph -σα- in front of the lengthened neutral morph. But notice that this means: (a) that the punctiliar morph will always come in front of a vowel (the lengthened neutral morph) and therefore it always elides to -σ-, and is never -σα- (#4.37); and (b) that the aorist subjunctive takes the present tense form of the pronoun endings rather than the pronoun endings used for the aorist indicative. 
4.45 WORDS REQUIRING THE SUBJUNCTIVE: The words ἵνα ("in order that") and ἄν ("ever" as in the word "whoever", indicating indefiniteness) and any words compounded with ἄν (such as ἐάν, "if ever", from εἰ, "if") always take the subjunctive after them. [There are two constructions with ἄν that do not take the subjunctive, dealt with in #4.76(d) and #10.82.] These words therefore act as indicators that a subjunctive is coming. (See further, #A4.2.) 
4.46 IMPERATIVE MODE: The imperative mode is used for any form of requesting: begging, entreating, praying, exhorting, commanding. NOTE (#4.21) that Greek has a third person imperative, for which there is no equivalent form in English. We can approximate the meaning as "let (him/her/it/them) carry out the action of the verb". In the imperative, once again (as in the subjunctive), the difference between the three tenses (present, aorist, and perfect) is one of aspect, and has nothing to do with time. The present imperative indicates that the action expressed in the verb is ongoing, continued or repeated; the aorist imperative implies that the action is not ongoing, continued or repeated. The aorist imperative is the one that is normally used unless there is some reason to indicate durative action. With the negative (μή — see #4.49), the present imperative expresses the prohibition of an act already begun: "Do not continue doing, that is, stop doing, (the action of the verb)". The prohibition of an act not yet begun — "Do not begin doing (the action of the verb)" — is expressed by μή with the aorist subjunctive. 
4.47 INFINITIVE MODE: The infinitive is used: to complete the thought or the action of the main verb; in the place of a noun (in which case it will usually have the definite article, and is referred to as the articular infinitive, #9.86); in indirect speech; to express purpose or result. The infinitive can have a subject (which is put in the accusative case, not the nominative [#9.43(c)]), and it can also govern an object. (The infinitive is discussed more fully in #10.7.) 
4.48 THE PARTICIPLE: The participle is given here (#4.21) for the masculine, feminine and neuter nominative singular, and the masculine/neuter genitive singular. These are the only forms needed for the moment, and (as will be explained in #8.15) they enable the whole of a participle's flexions to be known. 
NOTE that the second aorist participle, infinitive, imperative forms take the neutral morph and therefore have the same endings as the present participle and infinitive, not those of the first aorist. As the aorist does not take an augment outside the indicative mode (#4.42), the second aorist form for the infinitive and participle will be without the augment. 
      For ἦλθον this gives ἐλθεῖν and ἐλθών, -ουσα, -ον; 
      and for εἶδον this gives ἰδεῖν and ἰδών, -ουσα, -ον; 
      but for εἶπον we find εἰπεῖν and εἰπών, -ουσα, -ον. 
NOTE (a) that the second aorist infinitive ends in -ειν, as does the present infinitive, rather than -σαι, like the first aorist infinitive; 
    (b) that the second aorist imperative endings are also similar to the present imperative of λύω. 

FOUR: THE RELATIVE PRONOUN AND THE ACTIVE VOICE 55 
4.49 THE NEGATIVE: The word οὐ/οὐκ/οὐχ/οὐχί (#2.94) is used as the negative with verbs in the indicative mode. A completely different word, μή, is used as the negative with all other modes. Both negatives go in front of the word to which they refer. The two words can be used together, in the order οὐ μή, as an emphatic negative, which is normally then followed by the subjunctive [sometimes by the subjunctival future, #4.76(d)]. 
4.5 LINGUISTIC MODIFICATION RULES 
4.50 Most verbs modify their lexals in taking the augment when the lexal begins with a vowel, and in adding a morph which is, or which begins with, a consonant. The rules are:
4.51 THE TEMPORAL AUGMENT RULE: Remember, those verbs with lexals which begin with a short vowel take the temporal augment (#3.63) to indicate past time. That is, for these verbs the augment is not an additive morph but a process morph: the changing of the short vowel to the corresponding long vowel. 

<table>
 <tr><td></td><td></td><th>Present</th><th>Imperfect</th></tr>
 <tr><td>If a lexal begins with α, it lengthens this to η.</td><td>Example:</td><td>ἀκούω</td><td>ἤκουον</td></tr>
 <tr><td>If a lexal begins with ε, it lengthens this to η.</td><td>Example:</td><td>ἐλπίζω</td><td>ἤλπιζον</td></tr>
 <tr><td>If a lexal begins with ο, it lengthens this to ω.</td><td>Example:</td><td>ὀφείλω</td><td>ὤφειλον</td></tr>
</table>

If the short vowel is part of a diphthong with iota, the short vowel lengthens in accordance with this rule and the iota becomes subscript. 

<table>
 <tr><td></td><td></td><th>Present</th><th>Imperfect</th></tr>
 <tr><td>If a lexal begins with αι, this diphthong becomes ῃ.</td><td>Example:</td><td>αἰτέω</td><td>ἤτουν</td></tr>
 <tr><td>If a lexal begins with ει, this diphthong becomes ῃ.</td><td>Example:</td><td>εἰκάζω</td><td>ᾔκαζον†</td></tr>
 <tr><td>If a lexal begins with οι, this diphthong becomes ῳ.</td><td>Example:</td><td>οἰκοδομέω</td><td>ᾠκοδόμουν</td></tr>
 <tr><td>There are a small number of verbs beginning with ε- which, for particular linguistic reasons (to be explained in #C8.7) lengthen the ε- to ει- instead of η-.</td><td>Example:</td><td>ἔχω</td><td>εἶχον</td></tr>
</table>

† There is no New Testament example from a verb commencing with ει-; for the sake of completeness of the pattern, this example has been drawn from a Greek verb used outside the New Testament, εἰκάζω, "I liken, compare, conjecture, imagine". The root εἰπ- does not lengthen its epsilon, but forms its aorist as εἶπον (#4.48). 
4.52 ADDING PREPOSITIONS: A preposition occupies the first of the verb's nine morph slots. When prepositions ending in a vowel (except πρό and περί) are added to a simplex verb to make a compound verb (see #3.7), the final vowel elides completely before a vowel (including the augment). The nine prepositions which elide their final vowel in this way (called the eliding prepositions) are: ἀνά, ἀντί, ἀπό, διά, ἐπί, κατά, μετά, παρά and ὑπό. When adding the preposition ἐκ/ἐξ, to a verb form beginning with a vowel (including the augment, which occupies Slot 3), it is ἐξ (#1 .75). 
4.53 SHORT VOWEL LENGTHENING RULE: Where a verb lexal ends in a short vowel, this vowel regularly lengthens when followed by a morph beginning with a consonant: 

<table>
<tr><td></td><td></td><th>Present</th><th>Future</th></tr>
<tr><td>If a lexal ends with α, it lengthens this to η.  </td><td>Example:</td><td>τιμάω</td><td>τιμήσω</td></tr>
<tr><td>If a lexal ends with ε, it lengthens this to η.  </td><td>Example:</td><td>λαλέω</td><td>λαλήσω</td></tr>
<tr><td>If a lexal ends with ο, it lengthens this to ω.  </td><td>Example:</td><td>πληρόω</td><td>πληρώσω</td></tr>
</table>
This is "the Short Vowel Lengthening Rule". 
4.54 AMALGAMATION RULES FOR LABIALS AND PALATALS: 
    (a) LABIAL AMALGAMATION RULE: When a verb lexal ends in a labial (π, β, φ, ψ: see #1.69), the labial combines with a following σ into ψ. Example: γράφω, future γράψω). 
    (b) PALATAL AMALGAMATION RULE: When a verb lexal ends in a palatal (κ, γ, χ, ξ, σσ: see #1.69), the palatal combines with a following σ into ξ. Example: ἄγω, future ἄξω.

56 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
4.55 DENTAL DROP-OUT RULE: 

<table>
 <tr><td>When a verb lexal ends in a dental (τ, δ, θ, ζ), the dental drops out before a following consonant.</td><td>Example: δοξάζω, perfect δεδόξακα.</td></tr>
 <tr><td>When a verb lexal ends in -πτ-, the -τ- drops out under this rule, and the -π- then combines with a following -σ- to give -ψ- in accordance with #4.54(a).</td><td>Example: καλύπτω, future καλύψω.</td></tr>
</table>

4.56 FUTURE OF LIQUID VERBS: When a verb lexal ends in a liquid (see #1.69), either oral (-λ-, -ρ-) or nasal (-μ-, -ν-), that verb (called a liquid verb after the final phoneme of its lexal) cannot add -σ- to the liquid: these phonemes — liquids and sigma — are not compatible in Greek. The liquid verbs form their future differently: 
    (a) A liquid verb adds -ε- as its future time morph instead of -σ-. The added -ε- then contracts with the vowel of the ending into a long vowel or diphthong. (See further, #A4.23. This contraction occurs in accordance with linguistic rules to be introduced later [#6.8].) 
    (b) If the lexal of the present tense ends in double -λ-, then outside the present and imperfect tenses the verb also drops the final lambda. 
    (c) If the lexal of the present tense has a diphthong in -ι- before the liquid, then outside the present and imperfect tenses it drops the iota. For examples of such verbs, see #4.59. 
4.57 AORIST OF LIQUID VERBS: The fact that a liquid verb cannot add sigma to its lexal also affects the formation of the aorist tense, which non-liquid verbs form by adding the morph -σα-. 
    (a) To form the aorist of a liquid verb: replace the future morph and neutral morph of the future tense with the aorist morph -α-, and prefix the augment. But then, because liquids and sigma are not compatible in Greek, the sigma of the -σα- slides off the liquid, leaving just the -a-as the aorist morph in such a word. However, if the lexal ends in -ε- plus ρ, λ, or ν, then in compensation for the loss of this -σ- it lengthens -ε- to -ει- before the liquid. The end result for these verbs is that their punctiliar morph (that is, what marks the punctiliar aspect, aorist tense) is the iota before the liquid plus the alpha after it [which can be written as ι.α, where the dot between -ι- and -α- represents the liquid]. For examples of such verbs, see #4.59. 
    (b) Note that when a verb lexal ends in a liquid, the third person singular form of the aorist will have no visible punctiliar morph: because it is a liquid, the -σ- of the punctiliar morph will have slid off, and because the ending added for the third person singular is a vowel, the -α- will have elided. Thus there is nothing in Slot 7 (between the lexal and the pronoun morph), where you would otherwise have expected an aspect morph. When there is nothing (zero) in a slot where some-thing was expected, that "zero" is itself informative. This is called the zero morph, written by the symbol Ø. Thus when a verb lexal ends in a liquid, and there is nothing (zero) in Slot 7, followed by the third person singular pronoun ending, this data informs you that the verb form is aorist. 
4.58 PERFECT OF LIQUID VERBS: If the lexal of a liquid verb in the future tense: 
(a) is a monosyllable (that is, not counting prepositions in a compound verb), and ends in -ε- plus the liquid, then that lexal changes the -ε- into -α- in forming its perfect. 
(b) ends in -ιν-, then the -ν- is dropped before the endings of the perfect. 
4.59 EXAMPLES: The following verbs illustrate these various linguistic modifications: 

<table>
 <tr><th>PRESENT</th><th>MEANING</th><th>FUTURE</th><th>FIRST AORIST</th><th>PERFECT</th></tr>
 <tr><td>σύρω</td><td>drag</td><td>συρέω</td><td>ἔσυρα</td><td>σέσυρκα</td></tr>
 <tr><td>σκύλλω</td><td>trouble</td><td>σκυλέω</td><td>ἔσκυλα</td><td>—</td></tr>
 <tr><td>φαίνω</td><td>shine/appear</td><td>φανέω</td><td>ἔφανα</td><td>—</td></tr>
 <tr><td>δέρω</td><td>thrash</td><td>δερέω</td><td>ἔδειρα</td><td>—</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἀγγέλλω</td><td>announce</td><td>ἀγγελέω</td><td>ἤγγειλα</td><td>ἤγγελκα</td></tr>
 <tr><td>στέλλω</td><td>send</td><td>στελέω</td><td>ἔστειλα</td><td>ἔσταλκα</td></tr>
 <tr><td>σπείρω</td><td>sow</td><td>σπερέω</td><td>ἔσπειρα</td><td>ἔσπαρκα</td></tr>
 <tr><td>κρίνω</td><td>judge</td><td>κρινέω</td><td>ἔκρινα</td><td>κέκρικα</td></tr>
</table>


FOUR: THE RELATIVE PRONOUN AND THE ACTIVE VOICE 57 
The -έω of the future forms then contracts in each instance into -ῶ. Fuller information about forming liquid verbs is given in #C1.81—C1.89. 
Some verbs exhibit various irregularities. For the present, these verbs are used only in forms which will be recognizable by these rules. 
4.6 DOUBLE MORPHS 
4.61 DOUBLE FUTURE MORPH: The verb θέλω ("I wish, want") adds a double future morph. In accordance with the rule for the future of liquid verbs, it adds -ε- to become "θελέω", and next it adds the usual -σ- (#4.22) as well, and then follows the Short Vowel Lengthening Rule (#4.53) to make its future θελήσω. (Several other liquid verbs also take this double future morph; they are listed in #C1.88.) 
4.62 DOUBLE AUGMENT: A small number of verbs take a double augment. Thus θέλω takes the syllabic augment (#3.62), giving "ἔθελον", and then takes the temporal augment (#3.63) to form its imperfect of ἤθελον. Similarly its aorist is ἠθέλησα (not "ἐθέλησα"). Other verbs taking a double augment are δύναμαι, "I am able", μέλλω, "I intend", and ὁράω, "I see". 
4.63 TRIPLE AUGMENT: ἀνοίγω ("I open") is a compound of ἀνά with οἴγω, and is double augmented in the aorist to ἀνέῳξα. Some writers have applied the temporal augment to the preposition, giving the form ἤνοιξα (which strictly speaking is grammatically incorrect, but shows that they thought of it not as a compound but as a simplex verb). These augmentations are also found combined together, so that the form ἠνέῳξα (triple augment!) also occurs in the New Testament. 
4.7 GUIDELINES ON HOW TO DECIPHER A VERB 
4.71 First, locate the verb. If it is not one you recognize at once, it can be identified (a) by its ending, which you know from your memorized paradigms (even if you don't know the rest of it); (b) because of a negative in front of it; or (c) by a process of elimination, because you recognize the words around it as nouns or other parts of speech. 
4.72 Does it have a reduplication in -ε-, on the model of λέλυκα? Then it is a present perfect (or a pluperfect if it also has an augment and/or the morph -ει- in its Slot 8). 
4.73 Does it have an augment? Remember (a) to look for the augment between the preposition and the verb lexal in compound words, and (b) that the augment may be contained in an initial long vowel or diphthong. If it has an augment, does it also have -σα- (or -σ- before a vowel) between the verb lexal and the ending? If so, it is a first aorist indicative. If not, then it is either a second or third aorist or an imperfect. Strip off the augment and ending, substitute -ω, and if it is an imperfect you should find your word now in the lexicon. If not, check it out as a second aorist: try it with the augment and the first person singular second aorist ending and see if that form is in the lexicon. If it is, it will tell you the corresponding first person singular of the present active. If you have no success with these efforts, go on to #4.74. 
4.74 Does it have -σα- (or -σ- before a vowel) between the lexal and the ending? If so, and it also has an augment, then it is a first aorist indicative. If it has -σ- but no augment, then it is either a future or a first aorist in a mode other than the indicative. Check to see if the endings are those of the future indicative or those of the aorist subjunctive, imperative, or infinitive. (Remember: that the future and the aorist subjunctive have the same form for the first person singular; that a future -σ- will always be followed by a neutral morph; that -σα- always indicates a first aorist.) But what verb does it come from? Strip off the -σα- or -σ- and the ending (and the augment, if any), substitute -w, and you should be able to find your word in the lexicon. If not, the probability is that this word is a dental lexal verb and the dental has dropped out before the -σ-, in accordance with


58 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
#4.55. So, restore the dental. Try each dental in turn until you find a word that is listed in your lexicon. Start with ζ first (there are 211 Greek New Testament verbs with present lexals ending in ζ; eight in δ; six in θ; and one in τ). 
4.75 It is important for deciphering a verb to be able to recognize and identify all the morphs of which it is composed. We can now add two extra morph slots — for the reduplication (Slot 3) and the future morph (Slot 6) — to the five we have already met in Lesson Three (#3.93). We should also NOTE (a) that the neutral morph (-ο/ε-), the punctiliar morph (-σα-) and the perfective active morph (-κα-) are alternatives in the aspect slot (Slot 7) — one or other of them will occur; (b) that when the neutral morph is lengthened this indicates subjunctive mode; and (c) that the aorist subjunctive thus requires both the punctiliar morph (which will not be -σα- but -σ- because it comes in front of a vowel) and the lengthened neutral morph. (This is the only circumstance in which two affix aspect morphs will occur together in Slot 7.) Moreover, the infinitive ending is an alternative to the pronoun ending: a verb will have one or the other. 
4.76 TRANSLATING THE FUTURE: The unifying idea of the future tense is that of expectation. Four types of future (identical in form) can be recognized from their context: 
    (a) Predictive Future (the most common kind): Translate as -will". The speaker is predicting what is going to happen. This may be a statement of the speaker's own intention ("Teacher, I will follow you" [Mt 8:19]), or of the speaker's expectation ("One of you will say to me ..." [Rom 9:19]). 
    (b) Prophetic Future: This is a promise made by the Lord or his prophet. The NRSV at times translates this as "shall": "Look, the virgin shall conceive and bear a son" (Matthew 1:23; similarly Matthew 2:6, etc.). 
    (c) Imperatival Future: a future form which has the force of an imperative (see #4.46). Translate "shall" ("You shall call his name Jesus" [Mt 1:21]; "You shall not steal ... You shall love your neighbour as yourself [Mt 19:18-19, NRSV]; "he shall be your servant" [Mk 10:43, L9/B9]). 
    (d) Subjunctival Future: occasionally a future will be used where you would expect a subjunctive (see #4.43-45; #4.49), and with subjunctive meaning. Translate "may", "might", "would", "should", or similarly. This use of the future can occur in constructions that normally require a subjunctive: after ἵνα (Gal 2:4; 1 Pet 3:1; Rev 3:9; 6:4; 6:11; 14:13; 22:14); and after ἐάν, μή, or μήποτε (Mt 7:6; Acts 8:31; Col 2:8; Heb 3:12); and with οὐ μή as an emphatic negating of the future (Mt 15:6; 16:22; 26:35; Mark 13:31; 14:31; Luke 21:33; John 4:14; 6:35; 10:5; 20:25; Gal 4:30; Heb 10:17; Rev 3:5; 9:6; 18:14). Example: Βλέπετε, ἀδελφοί, μήποτε ἔσται ἔν τινι ὑμῶν, "Watch out, brothers, lest there should be in any one of you ..." (Heb 3:12).
4.77 Here is the morphological analysis of a selection of forms from λύω (#4.21) and one from the compound ἀπολύω. Examine each form, identify what it is, and work out its meaning: 

<table>
 <tr><td></td><th>1</th><th>2</th><th>3</th><th>4</th><th>5</th><th>6</th><th>7</th><th>8</th><th>9</th></tr>
 <tr><th>VERB FORM</th><th>PREP.</th><th>PAST</th><th>REDUPLICATION</th><th>LEXAL</th><th></th><th>FUTURE</th><th>ASPECT</th><th></th><th>ENDING</th></tr>
 <tr><td>λύσω</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>λυ</td><td></td><td>σ</td><td>ο</td><td></td><td>L</td></tr>
 <tr><td>λύσω</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>λυ</td><td></td><td></td><td>σω</td><td></td><td>L</td></tr>
 <tr><td>λύσουσι(ν)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>λυ</td><td></td><td>σ</td><td>ο</td><td></td><td>υσιν</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἔλυε(ν)</td><td></td><td>ἐ</td><td></td><td>λυ</td><td></td><td></td><td>∅</td><td></td><td>ε(ν)</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἐλύομεν</td><td></td><td>ἐ</td><td></td><td>λυ</td><td></td><td></td><td>ο</td><td></td><td>μεν</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἔλυσα</td><td></td><td>ἐ</td><td></td><td>λυ</td><td></td><td></td><td>σα</td><td></td><td>∅</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἐλύσαμεν</td><td></td><td>ἐ</td><td></td><td>λυ</td><td></td><td></td><td>σα</td><td></td><td>μεν</td></tr>
 <tr><td>λελύκαμεν</td><td></td><td></td><td>λε</td><td>λυ</td><td></td><td></td><td>κα</td><td></td><td>μεν</td></tr>
 <tr><td>λύῃ</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>λυ</td><td></td><td></td><td>η</td><td></td><td>ι</td></tr>
 <tr><td>λύωμεν</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>λυ</td><td></td><td></td><td>ω</td><td></td><td>μεν</td></tr>
 <tr><td>λύσωμεν</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>λυ</td><td></td><td></td><td>ω</td><td></td><td>μεν</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἀπολῦσαι</td><td>ἀπο</td><td></td><td></td><td>λυ</td><td></td><td></td><td>σα</td><td></td><td>αι</td></tr>
 <tr><td>λελυκέναι</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>λυ</td><td></td><td></td><td>κε</td><td></td><td>ναι</td></tr>
</table>


FOUR: THE RELATIVE PRONOUN AND THE ACTIVE VOICE 59 
4.78 Slots 1, 4, 7 and 9 can be likened to multiposition switches (see #A3.37) — you can have any preposition in Slot 1, any lexal in Slot 4, one of the aspect morphs (neutral, punctiliar or perfective) in Slot 7, and a pronoun or infinitive ending in Slot 9. Slots 2, 3 and 6 are like simple on/off switches — when the morph is there, that switch is "on", and it switches the word to "past time", "perfect", or "future time" respectively.
4.8 USING THE GUIDELINES TO UNDERSTAND SOME VERBS IN THE SELECTIONS 
4.81 ἀνῆλθεν: The first part of the word is the preposition ἀνά, which has elided its final vowel when prefixed to a lexal commencing with a vowel (see #4.52). The main verb is then seen to be -ῆλθεν, which will be recognized as a form from the paradigm of ἦλθον (#3.81). (Selection B 14.) 
4.82 δεδουλεύκαμεν: The reduplication indicates that this is present perfect, confirmed by the -κα- between lexal and ending. The ending shows that the verb form is first person plural. Remove reduplication, perfective aspect morph, and ending, add -ω, and you have the lexical form, δουλεύω. (Selection B 10.) 
4.83 μὴ νομίσητε: The μή alerts you that the following word is likely to be a verb, and if so it will not be indicative mode (#4.49). The -σ- of νομίσητε indicates either the future or the aorist, the -η- after the -σ- shows it to be subjunctive. As there is no such tense as a future subjunctive, you check your paradigm pattern and confirm that it is first aorist subjunctive, the -τε ending identifying it as the second person plural. But of what verb? The lexal before the sigma is νομι-, so the verb could be νομίω. You check your wordlist and find that there is no such word. So it is either a dental lexal verb, with the dental having dropped out before sigma, or it is some irregular form. You check out the dental possibilities and discover that the verb is: νομίζω. You can now see that it is a negative second person plural aorist subjunctive, which (as per #4.46) is "The prohibition of an act not yet begun." Thus μὴ νομίσητε means, "Do not have the thought ...", "Do not imagine for a single moment ...". (Selection B 18.) 
4.84 Where Knowing Greek Makes a Difference: Always take careful note of the aspect of a verb, and take it into account in your translation, and for your understanding of a passage: sometimes the aspect chosen by the author can make a significant difference to the meaning of what he is saying. Thus in 1 John 3:9 we read, "Whoever has been born of God does not sin, for his seed remains in him; and he cannot sin, because he has been born of God." [NKJV.] This passage has caused considerable concern to many Christians who know they have been born again, and yet are aware that they have fallen into sin. If you know Greek, you will recognize that John here is using durative aspect, referring to an ongoing situation: "No one who is born of God will continue To sin, because God's seed remains in him; he cannot go on sinning, because he has been born of God." [NIV.] The passage is not speaking of an isolated act of sin, but of a continuing to live in sin: it is this which is incompatible with Christian profession. Again: in Ephesians 5:18 Paul instructs, "Be filled with the Spirit". He could have chosen to use punctiliar aspect (the aorist imperative), hich would have emphasized the fact of the filling, and could have been taken to refer to a once-for-all experience of Spirit-filling. Instead, Paul chose to use durative aspect (the present imperative), thus speaking of a repeated and ongoing filling: "Be continuously being filled with the Spirit." 
4.9 NOTES FOR THE SELECTIONS 
4.91 Verbs with lexals ending in -ε- (a) absorb this -ε- into a following long vowel or diphthong ending, and (b) contract this -ε- with a following -ε- into the diphthong -ει-. (Other types of contraction will be explained in #6.8.) 

60 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
4.92 The infinitive after ἐν τῷ expresses the time at or during which the action occurred; it can be translated "when ..." or "while ..." (verb action). (Selection B20.) 
4.93 The article plus δέ can be used on its own as the subject of a sentence, referring to someone previously mentioned. Thus ὁ δὲ ..., "and he ...". (See #1.83.) (Selection B20.) 
4.94 NOTE another pair of words differentiated by their accent. We have met ἀλλά, "but", in L2/B20; ἄλλος (introduced in L4/B15) has the nominative/accusative neuter plural form ἄλλα, differing from ἀλλά only in its accent. 
4.95 There will be occasions when the aorist is best rendered into English by the present perfect, where Greek focusses on the act and English on the consequence. For example: Ἐχθρὸς ἄνθρωπος τοῦτο ἐποίησεν — "some enemy has done this". (ἐχθρὸς ἄνθρωπος = a hostile man, an enemy.) (Selection B20.) 
ASSIGNMENTS ON LESSON FOUR 
1. PARADIGMS FOR LEARNING: The paradigms to be learnt by heart this Lesson are:
    7. The first aorist indicative active of λύω (ἔλυσα, #4.21);
    8. The forms of the present active imperative, infinitive and participle of λύω (#4.21).
    9. The forms of the first aorist active imperative, infinitive and participle of λύω (#4.21). 
2. LEARNING THE OTHER FLEXIONS OF THE ACTIVE VERB: Compare the flexion of λύσω (future) with the present tense (#2.81); the flexion of the perfect, λέλυκα, with the first aorist, ἔλυσα; the imperfect, ἔλυον, with the second aorist, ἔβαλον (#3.81), and the flexions of the present and aorist subjunctive with each other and with the present indicative, λύω (#2.81). Learn these various flexions of λύω by noting the similarities and differences seen in your comparisons, and the significance of the differences. 
3. APPENDIX: READ CAREFULLY the additional information set out in the Appendix, #A4. 
4. WORKBOOK: ANSWER THE QUESTIONS in your Workbook about this Lesson. 
5. TRANSLATION EXERCISES A AND B: Do the English into Greek exercises, and then read and translate literally all the Selections from the Greek New Testament. Make sure that you continue to read each Selection aloud before translating it, to help cultivate your "feel" for the Greek. 
NOTE: To do this work you will need to use the paradigms set for learning this Lesson, together with the paradigms and vocabulary of the previous Lessons. The new prepositions given below, and the cases they take, should be carefully noted. Most of the Selections introduce new vocabulary which is then used again in the Selections which follow. LEARN each unknown word as you use it. 
6. VOCABULARY CARDS: Continue the practice of writing out Vocabulary Cards for the new words introduced in this Lesson, putting 4 (for "Lesson 4") in the top lefthand corner of each side of the Card. Make out the card for each new word as you come to it in the Sentences below; you will need some words for several Sentences. Add these Cards to your collection, and place them all in alphabetical order. (Don't forget to put on your Card the case(s) taken by each preposition.) 
7. ABBREVIATIONS IN THE NOTES (BELOW): see page 12. 

FOUR: THE RELATIVE PRONOUN AND THE ACTIVE VOICE 61 
PREPOSITIONS 

<table>
 <tr><td><table><tr><td>ἀνά (+acc) up</td><td>*διά (+gen) through</td></tr><tr><td>κατέναντι (+gen) opposite   </td><td>*πρός (+acc) to, towards, at, with, because of</td></tr></table></td></tr>
 <tr><td>ἐγγύς (+gen) near, close by (also used as an adverb, not governing a noun)</td></tr>
</table>


A. TRANSLATION FROM ENGLISH INTO GREEK 
(This may be done as an exercise in class at the end of the Lesson, or set as an assignment.) 

<table>
 <tr><td></td><th>SENTENCES</th><th>NOTES AND NEW WORDS</th></tr>
 <tr><th>A1.</th><td>"Release Barabbas for us." (Luke 23:18)</td><td>release: *ἀπολύω; Barabbas: Βαραββᾶς</td></tr>
 <tr><th>A2.</th><td>And they said to him, "Believe upon the Lord Jesus, and you (sg emphatic) will be saved." (Acts 16:31)</td><td>you (sg) will be saved: σωθήσῃ</td></tr>
 <tr><th>A3.</th><td>Pilate then says to him, "I have authority to release you." (John 19:10)</td><td>authority: * ἐξουσία, -ας, ἡ</td></tr>
 <tr><th>A4.</th><td>Jesus says to them, "Do you believe that I am able to do this thing?" (Matthew 9:28)</td><td>I am able: *δύναμαι; do, make, carry out, practise: *ποιέω</td></tr>
 <tr><th>A5.</th><td>They say to him, "Yes, Lord." (Matt 9:28)</td><td>yes: ναί</td></tr>
 <tr><th>A6.</th><td>"Saul, Saul, why are you persecuting me?" (Acts 26:14)</td><td>Saul: Σαούλ; persecute: διώκω</td></tr>
 <tr><th>A7.</th><td>"Who are you, Lord?" (Acts 26:15)</td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><th>A8.</th><td>"I (emphatic) am Jesus whom you (emphatic) are persecuting." (Acts 26:15)</td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><th>A9.</th><td>For not even his brothers believed in him. (John 7:5)</td><td>not even (neither, nor): *οὐδέ; in: *εἰς</td></tr>
 <tr><th>A10.</th><td>"Lord, Lord, open up for us." (Matt 25:11)</td><td>open, open up: *ἀνοίγω</td></tr>
 <tr><th>A11.</th><td>"Sir, we wish to see Jesus." (John 12:21)</td><td>wish, want: *θέλω; see: *εἶδον (aorist²)</td></tr>
 <tr><th>A12.</th><td>The man believed the word which Jesus said to him. (John 4:50)</td><td>believe: *πιστεύω (takes dative); which: relative pronoun (see #4.13-4.17)</td></tr>
</table>


B. SELECTIONS FROM THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 

<table>
 <tr><th></th><th>SELECTIONS</th><th>ADDITIONAL VOCABULARY</th></tr>
 <tr><td>B1.</td><td>Κύριε, σῶσόν με. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 14:30)</td><td>*σῴζω: save, rescue, deliver, cure</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B2.</td><td>Ἦν δὲ ἐγγὺς τὸ Πάσχα τῶν Ἰουδαίων· (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 11:55)</td><td>πάσχα, τό (indecl.): the passover</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B3.</td><td>εἰρήνην τὴν ἐμὴν δίδωμι ὑμῖν· (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 14:27)</td><td>*δίδωμι: I give</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B4.</td><td>καὶ ἦλθον εἰς Βηθσφαγὴ πρὸς τὸ ὄρος τῶν Ἐλαιῶν. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 21:1)</td><td>Βηθσφαγή, ἡ (indecl.): Bethphage; *ὄρος, -ους, τό: mountain; ἐλαία, -ας, ἡ: olive (tree)</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B5.</td><td>Καὶ ἦν κηρύσσων ἐν ταῖς συναγωγαῖς αὐτῶν εἰς ὅλην τὴν Γαλιλαίαν, καὶ τὰ δαιμόνια ἐκβάλλων. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΡΚΟΝ 1:39)</td><td>κηρύσσων: preaching; *συναγωγή, synagogue; ἐκβάλλων: driving out</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B6.</td><td>καὶ σύ ποτε ἐπιστρέψας στήριξον τοὺς ἀδελφούς σου. (ΚΑΤΑ ΛΟΥΚΑΝ 22:32)</td><td>ἐπιστρέφω: return, turn around; ποτε: once; στηρίζω: strengthen</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B7.</td><td>Καὶ ἐγγὺς ἦν τὸ Πάσχα τῶν Ἰουδαίων, καὶ ἀνέβη εἰς Ἱεροσόλυμα ὁ Ἰησοῦς. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 2:13)</td><td>ἀνέβη: (he) went up; Ἱεροσόλυμα, -ων, τά: Jerusalem</td></tr>
</table>


62 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 

<table>
 <tr><th></th><th>SELECTIONS</th><th>ADDITIONAL VOCABULARY</th></tr>
 <tr><td>B8.</td><td>τὰ ῥήματα ἃ ἐγὼ λαλῶ ὑμῖν, πνεῦμά ἐστιν καὶ ζωή ἐστιν. Ἀλλ’ εἰσὶν ἐξ ὑμῶν τινες οἳ οὐ πιστεύουσιν. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 6:63-64)</td><td>Re ῥήματα: see #3.4; *λαλέω: speak; Re ἐστιν: see #2.17(a); ἀλλ’=ἀλλά [see #1.81(e)]; τινες some (people)</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B9.</td><td>Ἐγὼ δὲ ὅτι τὴν ἀλήθειαν λέγω, οὐ πιστεύετέ μοι. Τίς ἐξ ὑμῶν ἐλέγχει με περὶ ἁμαρτίας; Εἰ δὲ ἀλήθειαν λέγω, διὰ τί ὑμεῖς οὐ πιστεύετέ μοι; (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 8:45-46)</td><td>*εἰ: if; διὰ τί why?</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B10.</td><td>Σπέρμα Ἀβραάμ ἐσμεν, καὶ οὐδενὶ δεδουλεύκαμεν πώποτε· (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 8:33)</td><td>οὐδενί: to no one; δουλεύω: be a slave, enslaved; πώποτε: at any time</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B11.</td><td>Ἦν δὲ ἡ Βηθανία ἐγγὺς τῶν Ἱεροσολύμων· (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 11:18)</td><td>Βηθανία, ἡ: Bethany</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B12.</td><td>Εἶπεν αὐτῇ ὁ Ἰησοῦς, Ἐγώ εἰμι ἡ ἀνάστασις καὶ ἡ ζωή· ... Πιστεύεις τοῦτο; Λέγει αὐτῷ, Ναί, Κύριε· ἐγὼ πεπίστευκα, ὅτι σὺ εἶ ὁ χριστός, ὁ υἱὸς τοῦ θεοῦ (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 11:25-27)</td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><td>B13.</td><td>Ἄγουσιν αὐτὸν πρὸς τοὺς Φαρισαίους, τόν ποτε τυφλόν. Ἦν δὲ σάββατον ὅτε τὸν πηλὸν ἐποίησεν ὁ Ἰησοῦς, καὶ ἀνέῳξεν αὐτοῦ τοὺς ὀφθαλμούς. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 9:13-14)</td><td>Φαρισαῖος, -ου, ὁ: a Pharisee; *τυφλός -ή -όν: blind (person); πηλός, -οῦ, ὁ: clay, mud; *ὀφθαλμός, -οῦ, ὁ: eye</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B14.</td><td>Ἀνῆλθεν δὲ εἰς τὸ ὄρος ὁ Ἰησοῦς, καὶ ἐκεῖ ἐκάθητο μετὰ τῶν μαθητῶν αὐτοῦ. Ἦν δὲ ἐγγὺς τὸ Πάσχα, ἡ ἑορτὴ τῶν Ἰουδαίων. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 6:3-4)</td><td>ἀνῆλθεν: I went up; ἐκάθητο: (he) sat/was sitting (down); ἑορτή, -ῆς, ἡ, feast</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B15.</td><td>Ἔλεγον δὲ πολλοὶ ἐξ αὐτῶν, Δαιμόνιον ἔχει καὶ μαίνεται· τί αὐτοῦ ἀκούετε; Ἄλλοι ἔλεγον , Ταῦτα τὰ ῥήματα οὐκ ἔστιν δαιμονιζομένου · μὴ δαιμόνιον δύναται τυφλῶν ὀφθαλμοὺς ἀνοίγειν; (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 10:20-21)</td><td>πολλοί: many; μαίνεται: he is raving mad; *ἄλλος -η -ο: (an)other; δαιμονιζόμενος: a demon-possessed man; δύναται: he is able</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B16.</td><td>ἦλθεν ὁ Ἰησοῦς καὶ ἔστη εἰς τὸ μέσον, καὶ λέγει αὐτοῖς, Εἰρήνη ὑμῖν. ... Εἶπεν οὖν αὐτοῖς ὁ Ἰησοῦς πάλιν, Εἰρήνη ὑμῖν· (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 20:19, 21)</td><td>ἔστη: (he) stood</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B17.</td><td>Πιστὸς δέ ἐστιν ὁ κύριος, ὃς στηρίξει ὑμᾶς καὶ φυλάξει ἀπὸ τοῦ πονηροῦ. (ΠΡΟΣ ΘΕΣΣΑΛΟΝΙΚΕΙΣ Β, 3:3)</td><td>*πιστός -ή -όν: faithful, reliable, trustworthy; στηρίζω: future ⟶ στηρίξω); φυλάσσω: guard, keep</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B18.</td><td>Μὴ νομίσητε ὅτι ἦλθον καταλῦσαι τὸν νόμον ἢ τοὺς προφήτας· οὐκ ἦλθον καταλῦσαι ἀλλὰ πληρῶσαι. Ἀμὴν γὰρ λέγω ὑμῖν, ἕως ἂν παρέλθῃ ὁ οὐρανὸς καὶ ἡ γῆ, ἰῶτα ἓν ἢ μία κεραία οὐ μὴ παρέλθῃ ἀπὸ τοῦ νόμου, ἕως ἂν πάντα γένηται. Ὃς ἐὰν οὖν λύσῃ μίαν τῶν ἐντολῶν τούτων τῶν ἐλαχίστων, καὶ διδάξῃ οὕτως τοὺς ἀνθρώπους, ἐλάχιστος κληθήσεται ἐν τῇ βασιλείᾳ τῶν οὐρανῶν· ὃς δ’ ἂν ποιήσῃ καὶ διδάξῃ, οὗτος μέγας κληθήσεται ἐν τῇ βασιλείᾳ τῶν οὐρανῶν. Λέγω γὰρ ὑμῖν ὅτι ἐὰν μὴ περισσεύσῃ ἡ δικαιοσύνη ὑμῶν πλεῖον τῶν γραμματέων καὶ Φαρισαίων, οὐ μὴ εἰσέλθητε εἰς τὴν βασιλείαν τῶν οὐρανῶν. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 5:17-20)</td><td>νομίζω: think, suppose; καταλύω: do away with, destroy; *πληρόω: accomplish, fulfil; *γάρ: for; *ἕως: until; *ἄν: ever (indicating indefiniteness); παρῆλθον: I passed away; ἰῶτα, τό (indecl): iota, jot, smallest letter; *εἷς, μία, ἕν, one (the number); κεραία, -ας, ἡ: stroke of a letter; πάντα all, everything; γένηται: happens, is accomplished; *ἐάν: ever, if (ever); *ἐντολή, -ῆς, ἡ: commandment; ἐλάχιστος -ίστη -ον: least; *διδάσκω (aorist ἐδίδαξα): teach; *οὕτως: thus, so; κληθήσεται: (he) shall be called; δ’ = δέ [see #1.81(e)]; *μέγας, μεγάλη, μέγα: great; ἐάν μή: except, unless; περισσεύω: exceed, overflow; *δικαιοσύνη, -ης, ἡ: righteousness; *πλείων, πλεῖον (+gen): more (than); *γραμματεύς, -έως, ὁ: scribe; *εἰσῆλθον: I entered (aor²) </td></tr>
</table>

FOUR: THE RELATIVE PRONOUN AND THE ACTIVE VOICE 63 

<table>
 <tr><th></th><th>SELECTIONS</th><th>ADDITIONAL VOCABULARY</th></tr>
 <tr><td>B19.</td><td>καὶ ἠκολούθησαν αὐτῷ ὄχλοι πολλοί, καὶ ἐθεράπευσεν αὐτοὺς πάντας, καὶ ἐπετίμησεν αὐτοῖς, ἵνα μὴ φανερὸν αὐτὸν ποιήσωσιν· ὅπως πληρωθῇ τὸ ῥηθὲν διὰ Ἠσαΐου τοῦ προφήτου, λέγοντος, Ἰδού, ὁ παῖς μου ὃν ᾑρέτισα· ὁ ἀγαπητός μου εἰς ὃν εὐδόκησεν ἡ ψυχή μου ·(ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 12:15-18)</td><td>*ἀκολουθέω: follow; θεραπεύω: heal, cure; ἐπιτιμάω: command, order; *ἵνα: in order that, that; φανερός -ά -όν: known; πληρωθῇ: (it) might be fulfilled; τὸ ῥηθέν: what was said/spoken; παῖς, παιδός, ὁ/ἡ: servant, child; αἱρετίζω: choose, appoint; εὐδοκέω: take delight in</td></tr>
</table>


SUPPLEMENTARY PASSAGES 


<table>
 <tr><th></th><th>SELECTIONS</th><th>ADDITIONAL VOCABULARY</th></tr>
 <tr><td>B20.</td><td>Ὡμοιώθη ἡ βασιλεία τῶν οὐρανῶν ἀνθρώπῳ σπείροντι καλὸν σπέρμα ἐν τῷ ἀγρῷ αὐτοῦ· ἐν δὲ τῷ καθεύδειν τοὺς ἀνθρώπους, ἦλθεν αὐτοῦ ὁ ἐχθρὸς καὶ ἔσπειρεν ζιζάνια ἀνὰ μέσον τοῦ σίτου, καὶ ἀπῆλθεν. Ὅτε δὲ ἐβλάστησεν ὁ χόρτος καὶ καρπὸν ἐποίησεν, τότε ἐφάνη καὶ τὰ ζιζάνια. Προσελθόντες δὲ οἱ δοῦλοι τοῦ οἰκοδεσπότου εἶπον αὐτῷ, Κύριε, οὐχὶ καλὸν σπέρμα ἔσπειρας ἐν τῷ σῷ ἀγρῷ; Πόθεν οὖν ἔχει ζιζάνια; Ὁ δὲ ἔφη αὐτοῖς, Ἐχθρὸς ἄνθρωπος τοῦτο ἐποίησεν. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 13:24-28)</td><td>ὡμοιώθη: may be compared; σπείροντι: sowing; καθεύδω: sleep; ἐχθρός -ά -όν: enemy, hated; ἐπισπείρω: sow over, resow; ἀνὰ μέσον: up the middle (= amongst); σῖτος, -ου, ὁ: wheat; ἀπῆλθον: I went away, departed; *ὅτε: when; βλαστάω: sprout; χόρτος, -ου, ὁ: plant, grass; *καρπός[1], -οῦ, ὁ: fruit; *τότε: then; ἐφάνη: (it) appeared; προσῆλθον: I approached; *δοῦλος, -ου, ὁ: slave; οἰκοδεσπότης, -ου, ὁ: master; *σπείρω: sow</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B21.</td><td>υἱὸς Τιμαίου Βαρτίμαιος ὁ τυφλὸς ἐκάθητο παρὰ τὴν ὁδὸν προσαιτῶν. Καὶ ἀκούσας ὅτι Ἰησοῦς ὁ Ναζωραῖός ἐστιν, ἤρξατο κράζειν καὶ λέγειν, Ὁ υἱὸς Δαυίδ, Ἰησοῦ, ἐλέησόν με. Καὶ ἐπετίμων αὐτῷ πολλοί, ἵνα σιωπήσῃ· ὁ δὲ πολλῷ μᾶλλον ἔκραζεν, Υἱὲ Δαυίδ, ἐλέησόν με. Καὶ στὰς ὁ Ἰησοῦς εἶπεν αὐτὸν φωνηθῆναι· καὶ φωνοῦσιν τὸν τυφλόν, λέγοντες αὐτῷ, Θάρσει· ἔγειραι, φωνεῖ σε. Ὁ δὲ ἀποβαλὼν τὸ ἱμάτιον αὐτοῦ ἀναστὰς ἦλθεν πρὸς τὸν Ἰησοῦν. Καὶ ἀποκριθεὶς λέγει αὐτῷ ὁ Ἰησοῦς, Τί θέλεις ποιήσω σοί; Ὁ δὲ τυφλὸς εἶπεν αὐτῷ, Ῥαββουνί, ἵνα ἀναβλέψω. Ὁ δὲ Ἰησοῦς εἶπεν αὐτῷ , Ὕπαγε · ἡ πίστις σου σέσωκέν σε. Καὶ εὐθέως ἀνέβλεψεν, καὶ ἠκολούθει τῷ Ἰησοῦ ἐν τῇ ὁδῷ . Καὶ ὅτε ἐγγίζουσιν εἰς Ἱερουσαλήμ, εἰς Βηθσφαγὴ καὶ Βηθανίαν, πρὸς τὸ ὄρος τῶν Ἐλαιῶν, ἀποστέλλει δύο τῶν μαθητῶν αὐτοῦ, καὶ λέγει αὐτοῖς, Ὑπάγετε εἰς τὴν κώμην τὴν κατέναντι ὑμῶν· καὶ εὐθέως εἰσπορευόμενοι εἰς αὐτὴν εὑρήσετε πῶλον δεδεμένον, ἐφ’ ὃν οὐδεὶς ἀνθρώπων κεκάθικεν· λύσαντες αὐτὸν ἀγάγετε. Καὶ ἐάν τις ὑμῖν εἴπῃ, Τί ποιεῖτε τοῦτο; Εἴπατε, ὅτι Ὁ κύριος αὐτοῦ χρείαν ἔχει· καὶ εὐθέως αὐτὸν ἀποστέλλει ὧδε. Ἀπῆλθον δὲ καὶ εὗρον πῶλον δεδεμένον πρὸς τὴν θύραν ἔξω ἐπὶ τοῦ ἀμφόδου, καὶ λύουσιν αὐτόν. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΡΚΟΝ 10:46-11:4)</td><td>ἐλεάω: be merciful (to); φωνέω: call, call out; ἀποκριθείς: answering; ῥαββουνί: Rabbi; ἀναβλέπω: see again; *ὑπάγω: I go (one's way); ἐγγίζω: come near; κώμη, -ης, ἡ: village; *εὑρίσκω: find; πῶλος, -ου, ὁ: colt; *φέρω: bring; *ἐάν: if (ever); * τις (without accent): anyone, someone, a certain; χρεία, -ας, ἡ: need; *ὧδε: here</td></tr>
</table>

</div>

<div id="L5" class="Lesson">
LESSON FIVE 
THE THIRD DECLENSION 
5.1 HOW TO FIND YOUR WAY THROUGH THE THIRD DECLENSION (D3) 
5.11 Many students find the Third Declension (D3) to be the hardest part of Greek to be mastered. There are so many Third Declension words and they decline so differently from each other that this Declension seems to look like a grabbag of whatever is left over from the First and Second Declensions rather than an orderly pattern. The forms of many words are unexpected and their behaviour is sometimes quite unpredictable. Twenty different standard paradigms exist, and many of them are followed by only two or three words in the New Testament — or maybe by just one word. In addition, there are a large number of common irregular words. To master the Third Declension seems like a great deal of work. 
5.12 It is: but only if the aim is to be able to write in New Testament Greek. Even the Greeks themselves got lost in the Third Declension at times, and in the general Greek literature (and on occasions in the New Testament too) various alternatives are found for some of the normal case forms of some D3 words. 
5.13 However, our aim is a more modest one: to be able to recognize and identify words of the Third Declension when we come across them in reading the Greek New Testament. It is much easier to identify forms when we encounter them than to be able to predict what a particular case will be. 
5.14 Third Declension paradigms divide up into those for words with vowel stems, and those for words with consonant stems. Each of these subdivides again into masculine/feminine paradigms, and neuter paradigms. There are four basic paradigms for Third Declension words: 

<table>
 <tr><td></td><th>MASC./FEM.</th><th>NEUTER</th></tr>
 <tr><th>Vowel Stem:</th><td>ἰχθύς</td><td>γένος</td></tr>
 <tr><th>Consonant Stem:</th><td>σάρξ</td><td>σῶμα</td></tr>
</table>

5.15 The other paradigms (there are twenty altogether) differ from these four mainly as a result of the changes which occur because of the phoneme(s) with which their stems end — these changes can be explained on the basis of six descriptive rules. Some sample paradigms are given here to illustrate these rules; the full twenty are set out in the Appendix, #D3. 
5.2 THIRD DECLENSION VOWEL STEMS 
5.20 Third Declension nouns with vowel stems vary in behaviour depending upon the vowel itself, and how it reacts with the endings that are added. There are five standard paradigm patterns — four for masculine/feminine nouns, and the other for neuter nouns. These are set out here, together with a listing of the endings, and of the Second Declension paradigm for comparison: 
64 

FIVE: THE THIRD DECLENSION 65 
SECOND THIRD DECLENSION VOWEL STEMS DECLENSION Endings D3.1 fish D3.2 city D3.3 ox D3.4 king D3.5 race 6 izthjg r) goat 6 Pag 6 PaczA.E15g To yvog. SN K-Optog -g izatjg rratc Poi)g Pao. 1,A.Eljg yevog ✓ tc6piE izOij goAt Poi) Pact2,Ef) — A lcOptov -v ixthiv galv Por)v Paccaea *og G K-vpiov -og ixt9Uog goAEca-,- Poog Pao-aecog yevovg D ?civic!) -i ixat'li 7r6A,Et Poi f3a6t2zi yvet PN Kfiptot -Eg ixt9I')Eg go2LEtc P6Eg Pacraeig *yri A Kvpioug -ag izatjag n-o)Lag f36ag Pao- 1A,Eig yew] G Kupiwv -cov izatjaw 7r6Aecov f3o6iv Pao-aecov yevecov D IcOptotc -cri(v) izaijo-t(y) goAzo-t(v) f3ovai(v) Pao-aEf)o-t(v) yeveo-t(v)
POINTS TO BE NOTED concerning these paradigms: 
5.21 The Second and Third Declensions have a separate form for the vocative singular. For the Third Declension, this is usually the word stem (frequently minus the final consonant of a consonant stem when this is other than "p" or "v"). (If a dash, — , is put for the vocative in any of these paradigms it does not mean that that type of word can have no vocative, but that the nominative form is used as the vocative.)
5.22 The dative plural ending is -at (v), with a movable nu. 
5.23 NOTE: The stem of a Third Declension noun is usually found by removing -og from the genitive singular. The endings are then added to this stem. The izO6c paradigm retains the vowel of its stem unchanged throughout, and simply adds the endings. LEARN this paradigm. In the other vowel stem paradigms the basic endings have become modified through amalgamation with the vowel of the stem ("contraction") – an explanation of what has happened will be given later (#D3); it is sufficient to note these other paradigms at this stage. 
5.24 The 13ao-tAetjg paradigm takes the ending "-a" for the accusative singular, which (as we shall see in #5.30) is the ending for Third Declension consonant stem words. In the accusative plural, nouns of this group can also be found with the ending "-ag" (like ix0'6ag) as an alternative to the normal "-Etc" (like raetc). 
5.25 The yevog paradigm follows the invariable pattern of all neuters in having the same form for nominative and accusative. At first sight it may appear to depart from the pattern that neuters always end in "-a" in nominative and accusative plural. In fact the "-a" is there, but disguised, having contracted with the "-E" of the stem to produce "-ri". 
5.26 Sometimes nouns of the yevog paradigm will have genitive plural forms in "-ewv", but usually they are contracted to "-Oiv", e.g. yEvo5v. 
5.27 Compare and contrast the Second and Third Declension forms. One potential source of confusion for students is to misread a Third Declension neuter as a Second Declension masculine and thus to take a noun in "-ovg" as being accusative plural (like the form K-vpiovg) rather than genitive singular. Again, it is necessary to distinguish carefully the neuter plural form in "-I-7" from the First Declension nominative singular of words of the ocovrj paradigm. 

66 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
5.3 THIRD DECLENSION MASCULINE AND FEMININE CONSONANT STEMS 
5.30 Third Declension nouns with consonant stems have the same pattern of endings as those v, vowel stems, except for the one difference that the masculine/feminine accusative singular ending is "-α", not "-ν". The final consonant of the stem interacts with the endings and this gives the different subgroups of masculine and feminine nouns. There is one main paradigm for neuter nouns with consonant stems. In all these paradigms the stem of the word shows up clearly in the genitive singular, which is always given in a lexicon together with the nominative singular. The masculine/feminine paradigms are: 

<table>
 <tr><td> </td><th>Endings</th><th>D3.6 flesh</th><th>D3.8 child</th><th>D3.11 saviour</th><th>D3.12 star</th><th>D3.16</th></tr>
 <tr><td> </td><td> </td><td>ἡ σάρξ</td><td></td><td>ὁ σωτήρ</td><td style = "text-align: center;">ὁ ἀστήρ</td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><td> </td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><th style = "text-align: right;">SN</th><td></td><td>σάρξ</td><td></td><td></td><td>ἀστήρ</td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><th style = "text-align: right;">A</th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>ἀστέρα</td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><th style = "text-align: right;">G</th><td></td><td>σαρκός</td><td></td><td>σωτῆρος</td><td>ἀστέρος</td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><th style = "text-align: right;">D</th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>ἀστέρι</td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><th style = "text-align: right;">PN</th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>ἀστέρες</td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><th style = "text-align: right;">A</th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>ἀστέρας</td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><th style = "text-align: right;">G</th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>ἀστέρων</td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><th style = "text-align: right;">D</th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>[ἀστράσι(ν)]</td><td></td></tr>
</table>

7j craps 6 WI wig-SN -g cai4 Kai; A -a captca raf6a G -og crapKog gatodc D -1 capici rat& PN -EC capiag Irafaeg A -ac capicag iraiZac G -coy capicav raiSow D -at (v) capi(v) rato-i(v)
o cwzrip ccovip con 'Oa cca-Mpoc carriipt contipec conlipag o-conjpow [o-an- "riper t (v)]
o acrrjp actrip acrepa dcrepog decthpi dearepEc acrepag decrepow [acrepct(v)]
leader r)yEitiojv flyepo:w nyeauova rjyepoyoc riyep,ovt rjyegovEg ilye,uovac ijyepovaw '4yeuoct(v)
5.31 No separate form for the vocative is given, as occurrences of this are rare. When it does occur, it usually conforms to the principle set out in #5.21 (e.g. in Attic Greek, raf, cro5zep — note the short -E-). The forms in square brackets are uncertain — see #D3.11 and #D3.12. 5.32 The paradigms of this Declension arise when stems and endings combine according to linguistic rules (see #4.5). Examples of how the different paradigms arise from the application of these rules are given here — for the other paradigms referred to, see Appendix D, #D3.
5.33 RULE ONE: SIGMA AMALGAMATES WITH PALATALS AND LABIALS: A sigma ending amalgamates with a palatal (#1.69) stem into (example: Paradigm D3.6, crapes plus --> cap); and with a labial (#1.69) stem into tif (example: Paradigm D3.7, /1i0- plus 
5.34 RULE TWO: DENTALS DROP OUT BEFORE SIGMA: When the stem ends in a dental (#1.69), this dental drops out when a sigma ending is added. (Example: Paradigm D3.8, 7raf,(5- plus mfg.) 
5.35 RULE THREE: SIGMA ALONE SLIDES OFF A RHO: When a noun stem ends in the oral liquid -p, the -g ending for the nominative singular slides off the rho and disappears. (Example: Paradigm D3.11, o-carrip- plus -g --> carrjp.) On the other hand, the dative plural ending is not sigma alone but -o-t (v), and this ending is added to the stem in the usual way. (Example: Paradigm D3.11, confjpat(v).) (Some irregular forms of the dative plural are found in practice.) 
5.36 RULE FOUR: COMPENSATORY LENGTHENING FOR STEM CONSONANT LOSS: When as a result of any of these rules one or more stem consonants have been lost from a nominative singular form, or two stein consonants have been lost from a dative plural form, then there is compensatory lengthening of the preceding vowel: -E- lengthens to -El-, and -o- lengthens to -ov-. (Example: Paradigm D3.8, go6- plus -c —> first of all "Troy" by Rule Two, and then Iroi4-, by this Rule.) NOTE that this Rule does not apply when sigma slides off a liquid (in accordance with Rule Three or Rule Five), because sigma is an ending not a stein consonant, and therefore does not fill the requirement; and similarly this Rule does not apply when only one stem consonant has been lost from the dative plural. 

FIVE: THE THIRD DECLENSION 67 
5.37 RULE FIVE: NU AND SIGMA INCOMPATIBILITY RULE: 
(a) The phonemes nu and sigma are incompatible in Greek, so that the sequence -νσ- or -νς does not occur in a Greek word. When the ending -ς is to be added to a stem which ends in -ν-, they cannot occur together and therefore one or the other of them is forced out of the word. 
(b) Where a sigma alone is being added to a nu stem, usually the sigma slides off and disappears, in the same way as for rho stem words (#5.35). (Example: Paradigm D3.15, μην- plus -ς ⟶ μήν, because the sigma ending slides off and disappears.) 
(c) In some words the sigma wins out and it is the nu which is lost from the word. (Example: Paradigm D3.20, ἱμαντ- plus -ς ⟶ first of all "
ἱμαντς" and then by Rule Two "ἱμανς", and then ἱμάς.) If the preceding vowel is -ε- or -ο-, then when the stem letter nu is lost, this vowel will lengthen in accordance with Rule Four. (Examples: Paradigm D6.7, ἑν- plus becomes "ἑνς" and in this word it is the nu which is forced out, giving "ἑς"; and then under Rule Four this will become εἷς; Paradigm D3.19, ὀδοντ- plus -ς becomes "ὀδοντς" and then under Rule Two "ὀδονς" and when the stem letter nu is lost, "ὀδος", and finally under Rule Four ὀδούς.) NOTE: it is unusual for the added -ς to dislodge the -ν like this in a noun; but it is common in adjectives, participles and pronouns, allowing the masculine gender to be differentiated from the neuter (e.g., εἷς and ἕν; πᾶς and πᾶν). 
(d) When the dative plural ending -σι(ν) is added to a nu stem, this morph wins out every time, and the nu is lost. (Example: Paradigm D3.16, ἡγεμον- plus -σι(ν) becomes ἡγεμόσι(ν) under this rule.) NOTE that in this word the preceding vowel -ο- does not lengthen by compensation under Rule Four because only one stem letter has been lost; but when two stem letters are lost from a dative plural form then there will be compensatory lengthening. (Example: Paradigm D3.18, ἀρχοντ- plus -σι(ν) first of all becomes "ἀρχοντσι(ν)" and then by Rule Two "ἀρχονσι(ν)", then by this Rule "ἀρχοσι(ν)", and finally by Rule Four, ἄρχουσι(ν). (NOTE the resemblance of this dative plural, with its movable nu, to the third person plural verb ending — beware of confusing these two forms.) This paradigm is the pattern followed by participles in -ων (set out in #D5.11). 
5.38 RULE SIX: THE SHORT VOWEL LENGTHENING RULE: If in the final syllable of the nominative singular of a noun form -e- or -o- is followed by a single consonant, and the form is not neuter, then that vowel lengthens to and -co- respectively. (Examples: Paradigm D3.12, acTep- plus -c —> first of all "aarepg" and then by Rule Three the sigma slides off, leaving "aarep"; which then by this Rule becomes aoTrip; Paradigm D3.13, daeicwp- plus -c --> first of all "caeicropc" and then by Rule Three the sigma slides off, leaving -daeKrop"; which then by this Rule becomes aelacop.) NOTE: this rule also applies when the vowel -E- is followed by a double consonant (thus, etAtivrig, genitive singular d).ctizeicog); it does not apply when the vowel -o- is followed by a double consonant (for example, 0.cg, o-K).otif) or when the form is neuter (for example, Paradigm D6.7, 
5.39 CLASS EXERCISE: APPLYING THESE RULES: (a) The genitive singular of the word for "night" is vincroc (feminine); applying these Rules, write out what the entire flexion of this word will be. (b) The masculine/neuter genitive singular of the aorist participle from tierbut is Oevroc.; write out what the entire masculine and neuter flexions for this word will be. (For checking your work, see #A5.2 and #D5.32.) 
5.4 IRREGULAR THIRD DECLENSION MASCULINE AND FEMININE NOUNS 
5.41 Quite a large number of Third Declension masculine and feminine nouns are slightly irregular — they form their nominative singular (and at times, their dative plural) in a way that varies to a small extent (usually by only a single letter) from what would have been expected under the rules of linguistic modification given above. The "irregular" form is still so close to expectation that usually you would have no more than a slight hesitation in recognizing the word. The more common of these have been set out in the Vocabulary for this Lesson; you can see the irregularity by comparing the other forms with the genitive singular, which shows the stem. 

68 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
5.42 Five other irregulars form what can be called "the family group": "father", -mother-. "daughter", "husband", and "wife" — all of them words that are so common that they are set out in full here (Paradigms D3.26 and D3.32) for ease of identification. (Only three paradigms are needed, as "mother", ,UTirrip, and "daughter", Ovythrip, exactly follow "father", gairjp.) 
5.43 zaz-rjp, 7rarpoc follows thyrrip, ao-Tepoc (D3.12, #5.30), but is irregular in dropping the "-E-" of its stem in the genitive and dative singular and in having an unexpected dative plural. "Husband, man", avrip, av8p6c, replaces the "-8-" of its stem with an "-E-" for nominative and vocative singular, and conforms then to the pattern of Karrjp in these forms and in the dative plural. "Wife, woman", yvvrj, yvvancog is irregular in its nominative singular, but in all other forms it conforms to the regular pattern of cap , capicoc (D3.6, #5.31). 

<table>
 <tr><td>5.44</td><th>D3.18 ruler</th><th>D3.32 father</th><th>D3.32 husband/man</th><th>D3.26 wife/woman</th><th>D3.9 body</th></tr>
 <tr><td></td><td>ὁ ἄρχων</td><td>ὁ πατήρ</td><td>ὁ ἀνήρ</td><td>ἡ γυνή</td><td>τὸ σῶμα</td></tr>
 <tr><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
 <tr><th style="text-align: right">SN</th><td>ἄρχων</td><td>πατήρ</td><td>ἀνήρ</td><td>γυνή</td><td>σῶμα</td></tr>
 <tr><th style="text-align: right">V</th><td>   —</td><td>πάτερ</td><td>ἄνερ</td><td>γύναι</td><td>   —</td></tr>
 <tr><th style="text-align: right">A</th><td>ἄρχοντα</td><td>πατέρα</td><td>ἄνδρα</td><td>γυναῖκα</td><td>σῶμα</td></tr>
 <tr><th style="text-align: right">G</th><td>ἄρχοντος</td><td>πατρός</td><td>ἀνδρός</td><td>γυναικός</td><td>σώματος</td></tr>
 <tr><th style="text-align: right">D</th><td>ἄρχοντι</td><td>πατρί</td><td>ἀνδρί</td><td>γυναικί</td><td>σώματι</td></tr>
 <tr><th style="text-align: right">PN</th><td>ἄρχοντες</td><td>πατέρες</td><td>ἄνδρες</td><td>γυναῖκες</td><td>σώματα</td></tr>
 <tr><th style="text-align: right">A</th><td>ἄρχοντας</td><td>πατέρας</td><td>ἄνδρας</td><td>γυναῖκας</td><td>σώματα</td></tr>
 <tr><th style="text-align: right">G</th><td>ἀρχόντων</td><td>πατέρων</td><td>ἀνδρῶν</td><td>γυναικῶν</td><td>σωμάτων</td></tr>
 <tr><th style="text-align: right">D</th><td>ἄρχουσι(ν)</td><td>πατράσι(ν)</td><td>ἀνδράσι(ν)</td><td>γυναιξί(ν)</td><td>σώμασι(ν)</td></tr>
 <tr></tr>
</table>

5.45 Where Knowing Greek Makes a Difference: It is important to know the difference between avrip, which means "man" in the sense of "mature male", "husband", and avepovrog (introduced in #1.41), which is "man" as a person, a human being. In the New Testament dvepovrog is used in reference to people in general, both men and women (in Matthew, for example, Matthew 4:4; 5:16; 5:19; 6:1; 6:5; 6:14-16; 7:12; 8:27; 12:12; 12:35; 12:43-45; 13:24-25; 16:26; 18:7; 23:4; and similarly in Paul's writings: for example, Romans 1:18; 1:23; 3:4; 3:28; 5:12; 5:18; 9:20; 14:18-20; 1 Corinthians 2:14; 3:3-4; 4:9; 11:28; 15:39; 2 Corinthians 5:11; 8:21; Galatians 1:10; 2:16; 6:7; Ephesians 4:8; 1 Thessalonians 2:6; 2:15; 1 Timothy 2:4-5; 4:10; 6:9; 2 Timothy 3:13; Titus 2:11; 3:2). In the NRSV avOixorog is usually translated as "mankind", "person", "human being", "people", "others" or the like. devrip is used in specific reference to a male human being, particularly in relation to that person's male roles; it is frequently used in contradistinction from yvvrj, "wife, woman" (for example, by Paul in Romans 7:1-3; 1 Corinthians 7:1-16; 11:1-16; 14:35; Ephesians 5:22-33; Colossians 3:18-19; 1 Timothy 2:8-12; 3:2; 5:9; Titus 1:6). Now then: in 2 Timothy 2:2 Paul writes, "The things you have heard me say in the presence of many witnesses entrust to reliable men who will also be qualified to teach others." (NIV.) Which word does Paul use here for "men", who are also to be qualified to teach others? The word which means "males, husbands"? Or the word which means "human beings, persons of both sexes", who shall in turn teach others (of both sexes)? If you know Greek, you will recognize the word Paul chooses to use in 2 Timothy 2:2, and its significance for us in our understanding of Paul's overall teaching: Paul uses avepovroc, not avrip. 
5.5 THIRD DECLENSION NEUTER CONSONANT STEMS 
5.51 The Third Declension neuter nouns with consonant stems all conform exactly to the dental stem pattern of παῖς, παιδός (see Paradigm D3.8, #5.31), but they have the three characteristics of the neuter: 

FIVE: THE THIRD DECLENSION 69 
5.52 Firstly, the neuter nominative singular does not add the -c that one finds in the masculine and feminine forms. Thus from the genitive singular acAuaroc one derives the stem o-copaz-; no -c is added for the nominative singular, but cannot stand as final letter of a word, and therefore is dropped (see the Word Endings Rule, #1.74). So the nominative singular is odua. 
5.53 Secondly, the nominative plural is formed by adding "-a" to the stem, aajpa-c-, giving ailyi ara. 
5.54 Thirdly, the accusative (both singular and plural) is always identical with the nominative. 
5.55 Of the 140 words that follow this paradigm, a dozen or so occur very frequently in the New Testament. In addition, there are three common words which do not have their stem in the "-par-" that is characteristic of this paradigm, and which have irregular nominative singular forms, but which in all other ways follow adiya. These words are: ydvv, yovatoc, "knee" (#D3.29); ot'); (frróc, "ear" (#D3.30); and I58cop, 158a-roc, water (#D3.13). Also neuter is Kip, irvp6; "fire", which follows aornjp (Paradigm D3.11, #5.30) but with the neuter characteristic that the accusative form is identical with the nominative (paradigm set out in full in Appendix, #D3.11). 
5.6 LEARNING THE THIRD DECLENSION ??? 
5.61 It is not really necessary to learn all the Third Declension paradigms — they are not given here for that purpose. There are two which you do need to learn: ἰχθύς (Paradigm D3.1, #5.20), which will give you the endings, and then σάρξ (Paradigm D3.6, #5.30) for the consonant stem paradigms. Look carefully through the remainder of the paradigms set out in this Lesson to see how stems and endings are modified when the different types of each are added together. Aim to be sufficiently familiar with the Linguistic Modification Rules and the overall pattern so that you can expect to have a good likelihood of recognizing the number and case of a Third Declension word when you encounter one. Remember, when you need to, you can always refer back to these paradigms, here and in Appendix D, #D3.
5.62 If you have the time and the desire, other paradigms which it would be helpful for you to learn in addition would be βασιλεύς, γένος, and σῶμα. 
5.7 LDECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES: FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSION PATTERN 
5.71 TWO PATTERNS OF DECLENSION: Adjectives follow two basic patterns of leclension, with two subgroups in each. There are adjectives which follow the First and Second Declension Pattern, and there are others which follow the First and Third Declension Pattern. 
5.72 THE TWO SUB-GROUPS: Adjectives which follow the First and Second Declension pattern will normally have three flexions, for the three genders, and they are therefore referred to ls -three-termination adjectives of the First and Second Declensions". However, there are some which belong to this group but which do not have a separate feminine flexion; these are known as "two-termination adjectives of the Second Declension". 
5.73 THREE-TERMINATION ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLEN-IONS (#D4.1, #D4.2): In this pattern, the feminine form of the adjective will follow the First Declension paradigms (D1.1 and D1.2, #3.11). The masculine and neuter forms of the adjective declined exactly the same as the nouns, masculine and neuter respectively, of the Second ,..-•clension (D2.1 and D2.2, #2.40). Thus, indicating the declensions of the masculine, feminine 

70 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
and neuter flexions respectively, these can be referred to as 2-1-2 adjectives. These adjectives are cited in a lexicon in the masculine form followed by the feminine and neuter endings (#2.5 ). Paradigms for these are set out in Appendix D, #D4.1 and #D4.2. 
5.74 TWO-TERMINATION ADJECTIVES OF THE SECOND DECLENSION: Some adjectives have only the Second Declension terminations and do not use a distinctive feminine form - the masculine form does duty as the feminine also. In this circumstance the masculine flexion is known as personal gender, as it functions for both masculine and feminine. (These are thus 2-2 adjectives.) Words of this kind are for the most part adjectives that are compound. including those beginning with -a-, meaning "not" or "un-", such as d(Sticoc, -ov, -unjust". 666vaToc, -ov, "incapable, impossible". Some adjectives vary between being used as two-termination and three-termination adjectives, and in these cases there are frequently variant readings in the manuscripts of the Greek, as ancient editors "corrected" the text in one direction or the other. 
5.8 DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES: FIRST AND THIRD DECLENSION PATTERN 
5.81 THE TWO SUB-GROUPS: Adjectives which follow the First and Third Declension pattern will normally have three flexions, for the three genders, and they are therefore referred to as "three-termination adjectives of the First and Third Declensions" (these are 3-1-3 adjectives). However, there are some which belong to this group but which do not have a separate feminine flexion; these are known as "two-termination adjectives of the Third Declension" (these are 3-3 adjectives). 
5.82 THREE TERMINATION ADJECTIVES: FEMININES ARE FIRST DECLENSION: In the pattern for three-termination adjectives of the First and Third Declensions, the stem of the feminine form of the adjective will usually end in p, 1, or e, and therefore will take "-a-" and follow the First Declension paradigm of icapSia (D1.1, #3.11). For example, f3apeia, from Paptjc, "hard/heavy" (Paradigm D4.4). Alternatively, the stem of some adjectives ends in the phoneme sigma; such an adjective will decline like 6.ga (D1.3, #3.11). Example: Irefeca, from nag, "all" (Paradigm D4.6). Those few adjectives which end in -77 follow Ocovrj (D1.2, #3.11). 
5.83 MASCULINES AND NEUTERS ARE THIRD DECLENSION: The masculine forms of Papa; #D4.4 (followed by 16 adjectives) are declined like nijAlc (D3.2, #5.20), but with -v-instead of -t- in nominative (vocative) and accusative singular; the neuter forms have the regular neuter characteristics: identical with the masculine in genitive and dative, both singular and plural; nominative/accusative singular consists of the masculine word stem alone (Papij); nominative/ accusative plural forms take the ending -a- (f3apa). The masculine of Irac (genitive gav-rdc) follows the Linguistic Modification Rules exactly and is identical with Paradigm D3.20 (#5.37), while the neuter retains the -v- of the stem in the nominative/accusative singular and adds the neuter -a- to the stem in the plural (the paradigm of ira; is given in full, #D4.6). All participles in "-ac" (such as )ocTac, #4.21) follow ran,-. 
5.84 THE - ON PARTICIPLE PATTERN: The adjective "willing", etcajv, eicovrog (#D4.5) follows Paradigm D3.18 (#5.44), dpxwv, apzovtoc, with neuter nominative/accusative singular kicov, and plural etcovwc. All participles in "-wv" (such as 2.4jwv, #4.21) decline like kiativ (see #D5.1). 
5.85 COMMON IRREGULARS, MIXED SECOND AND THIRD DECLENSION: Two very common adjectives are irregular and follow a mixed paradigm of Second and Third Declension forms. These are the flexions for the singular, with Third Declension forms underlined: 

FIVE: THE THIRD DECLENSION 71 
roAtig, much, many, large itiyag, great m. f. II. m. f. n. SN 7ro)5,-,- troAArj 7roAt5 ileYag peya2.77 yeya A Irokt3v 7roA),Tiv 7ro2co peyav iwycariv yew G roUofi 7ro;tAfic iroao pEydaov pEy(uric peydAov D KoAAO rcoU 7ro2Jki juEydAcp ,uEydau peya2,cp The masculine and neuter plural is Second Declension throughout. NOTE THAT the nominative and accusative forms, masculine and neuter (but not feminine) are Third Declension, while the genitive and dative forms, and all plural forms of these words, are regular Second Declension, with stems Iro- and ,uEyoa- respectively. That is, in these flexions from the genitive singular onwards, their stems add a lambda, and all forms with these lengthened stems are Second Declension. These flexions are set out in full in #D4.42, #D4.43. 5.86 THE WORD FOR "ONE": The word for "one" has these forms: SN Erg- pia iv A va ,uiav NOTE: In the nature of the case, there is no plural. G evog- ineic evdc The feminine uses a completely different stem: D evi plc( evi The forms of Erg combine with of)(5e and ,ur76e to give o1)(5eig-, o1')6Epia, o1)6ev and ,uri8Eic, prikuia, ,u176ev, "no-one, nothing". The forms eic and V are distinguished from the prepositions eig ("into", #A4.3) and ev ("in", #2.65) by the accent and the rough breathing on each. 
5.87 TWO-TERMINATION ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION (#D4.7, D4.8): Some adjectives have only the Third Declension terminations and no distinctive feminine form – the masculine form does duty as the feminine also; that is to say, the masculine form is personal gender. (These are thus 3-3 adjectives.) There are two main paradigms for these, shown by di0pcov (which follows Paradigm D3.16 [#5.30], reiyE,uil)v, r)yeydvo;) and allelic (which follows Paradigm D3.5, [#5.20], yevog-, yevovg). All positive adjectives in "-WV" (except kialw and Coccov: for which, see #5.84) and all comparative adjectives in "-coy" follow dOpcov.
5.88 The pronoun 21g, 2/ (genitive Ttvoc) also has only two terminations and apart from the nominative singular follows fiye,ucav, rjyE,uovoc, Paradigm D3.16 (#5.30). NOTE that when accented on the iota (Tic, 2i, etc.), this is the interrogative pronoun "who?, what?", and when unaccented or accented on its second syllable it is the indefinite pronoun, "someone, a certain, something". (It is given in full in the Appendix, #D6.5, #D6.6.) (This is the eighth accent which needs to be noted: see #A4.23 and #5.86.) 
5.89 Because of the extent to which these various adjectives, pronouns and participles have the same endings and follow the same general patterns as the nouns of the First, Second, and Third Declensions, their case, number and gender will usually be easily recognizable, and so it is not necessary to give paradigms for them all here. Any unusual or difficult forms will always be explained in the textual notes on the passage of the Greek New Testament that you are reading. All the paradigms, however, for adjectives, pronouns and participles are given in Appendix D. 
5.9 NOTES RE THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT SELECTIONS 
5.91 INSTRUMENTAL DATIVE: The dative case can be used to indicate the means with which something was done or the instrument that was used. This is called the instrumental dative. It is usu-ally best translated into English as "by means of ..." or "with ...". Thus in L5/B4, i36a-rt means "with water" – what is under consideration is what was used, not where it took place. Similarly in L5/B6 iDONlj yEycat3 means "with a loud voice", referring to "the instrument used" or "the means used". 

72 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
5.92 Sometimes Lv (plus dative) is used with this same "instrumental" sense, the instrumental ev. Thus ev Irve15,uaTt ayicp (L5/B4) means "with the Holy Spirit" in this context, not "in the Holy Spirit". That is, the meaning of ev here is not positional, where the baptism takes place, but instrumental, what the baptism is with. Similarly kv nveopart doca0aprcp (L5/B6) means "with an unclean spirit). 
5.93 Whether a particular use of the dative or the dative-plus-ev is instrumental or has some other meaning must be decided from the context in each particular case. 
5.94 RECOGNIZING AORIST FORMS: Note the difference between Ocvcrav and .1')cray. Both forms contain the punctiliar morph -o-a- and are therefore first aorist tense. The k- in Avaav is the past time morph and this factor in itself indicates indicative mode (because the aorist only takes the past time morph in the indicative — #4.42). The form is thus to be recognized as 3rd person plural aorist indicative. However, .2.15(3-ay is an aorist participle: the neuter nominative singular of ,a'ocag and means "loosing" or "having loosed", or "after loosing", with reference to a word that is neuter. This should be kept in mind in tackling L5/B6. 
ASSIGNMENTS ON LESSON FIVE 
1. PARADIGMS FOR LEARNING: The paradigms to be learnt by heart this Lesson are: 10. ixatjg (Paradigm D3.1, #5.20) 11. oyip (Paradigm D3.6, #5.30) 
2. LEARNING THE OTHER MAJOR PARADIGMS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION: Aim to understand the Linguistic Modification Rules which produce the different paradigms of the Third Declension (#5.3), and to recognize the forms of the paradigms which result from these rules. That is, seek to learn these other paradigms by understanding rather than by rote. 
3. APPENDIX: READ CAREFULLY the additional information set out in Appendix #A5. 
4. WORKBOOK: ANSWER THE QUESTIONS in your Workbook about this Lesson. 
5. TRANSLATION EXERCISES A AND B: Do the English into Greek exercises, and then read and translate literally all the Selections from the Greek New Testament. Make sure that you continue the pattern of reading each Selection aloud before translating it, to help cultivate your "feel" for the Greek. NOTE: To do this work you will need to use the paradigms set for learning this Lesson, together with the paradigms and vocabulary of the previous Lessons. The new prepositions given below, and the cases they take, should be carefully noted. Most of the Selections introduce new vocabulary which is then used again in the Selections which follow. LEARN each unknown word as you use it.
6. VOCABULARY CARDS: Continue the practice of writing out Vocabulary Cards for the new words introduced in this Lesson, putting 5 (for "Lesson 5") in the top lefthand corner of each side of the Card. Make out the card for each new word as you come to it in the Sentences below; some of the words will be needed for several Sentences. When you are given a word form and what it comes from, put the word it comes from at the top of your Card, and the information about that word form lower on the Card. Add these Cards to your collection, and place them all in alphabetical order. When additional information is provided about a word which you have had in a previous Lesson, add that information to your existing Vocabulary Card for that word. (Don't forget to put on your Card the case(s) taken by each preposition.) 
7. ABBREVIATIONS IN THE NOTES (BELOW): see page 12. 

FIVE: THE THIRD DECLENSION 73 
PREPOSITIONS
*kgi, kg, kcif (+acc) for, to, concerning, across VE10EV (+gen) because of (+gen) over, upon *157-rep (+acc) beyond, more than (+dat) at, by, on, in (+gen) for, concerning, for the sake of
A. TRANSLATION FROM ENGLISH INTO GREEK (This may be done as an exercise in class at the end of the Lesson, or set as an assignment.) NOTE: A word in square brackets, like [am], is omitted in the Greek.
SENTENCES NOTES AND NEW WORDS
A1. This is truly the saviour of the world. saviour: acorrjp, -fipog, 6 (JOHN 4:42)
A2. "Say to the daughter of Zion, 'Behold, your daughter: Ovycirrip, Ovyarpoc, r); king comes to you.— (MATTHEW 21:5) Zion: Itd)v (indecl.; 6 or to)
A3. Grace and peace from God [the] father grace: *xdpic, xdptroc, and Christ Jesus our Saviour. (TITUS 1:4)
A4. and we (emphatic) have [the] mind of and: *6e; Christ. (1 CORINTHIANS 2:16) mind: vac, voog, 6 (D3.3, #5.20)
A5. Believe me that I (emphatic) [am] in the "believe" takes the dative father and the father in me. (JOHN 14:11)
A6. And the governor questioned him, saying, governor, leader: r,yeycov, -ovoc, 6 "Are you (emphatic) the king of the Jews?" question, ask: *egepcoraco (MATTHEW 27:11)
A7. They were saying, "He has an unclean spirit." unclean: docaeaproc, -ov (MARK 3:30)
A8. My spirit rejoiced in God my saviour. (LUKE 1:47)
A9. "Where is the one born king of the Jews? For we saw his star in the east, and we came to worship him." (MATTHEW 2:2)
rejoiced: r)yaalacev; in: *bri (plus the dative) where? Koi); the one born: 6 rexOeig; east: avararj, r); worship: *gpoo-Kvvew (takes the dative) 
B. SELECTIONS FROM THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT A superscript number (as in aor2) is used to indicate a Second or Third Conjugation verb (as the case may be).
B1. Aim yap 'Opiv or' goAildt gpoofirai Kai (3aat2,efg r)190Lticav i3eiv ir)yeig PAe7rETE Kai ot5K elioav, aKof)aat a doco-Oere Kai of)K ifKovaay. (KATA AOTKAN 10:24)
B2. Kai eicifiABev gcatv eic IT v avvaywriv. rIv kKei dv9pcogoc kripappivriv 2(cov zeipa. (KATA MAPKON 3:1)
B3. Kai &rev, Ad:fiere, rof)ro eartv To ozoita you eligev afxrofc, Tof)ro k621T To 041,10C p01) TES 6taerivic. (KATA MAPKON 14:22, 24)
*goktjc, goA,A1-j, roAli: many, much, large
eripapauevriv: shrivelled, withered
Aa/3ETE: take (aorist2 imperative); *o-c5pa, -aro; ro: body; *arita, -aro; ro. blood; thaeriKri, covenant 

74 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 

B4. eyth OducTica Audc i6ctri, afrrag (Se ParTio-Et i51uaç ev 1TVE741aTt ayfrp. (KATA 1VIAPKON1:8)
B5. El Tic Xet dna a1C01/)E1V dKoverw. Kai OLEyEv af)Tofg, BAerETE Ti aKoijETE. (KA TA MAPKON4:23-24)
B6. 6t6acKcov ai5Toi),; o5c kouciav ixo)v icaI of)x thc oi ypappaTE1c. Kai Ef91; iv ev r avvaywyrj af)Tciiv div9pcoroc ev 7VvEt5A.taTt a/meow-tip, caI deveKpaev Kai erETipricEv af)T45 6 Thcof)g. ileycov, OtpcoeriTt Kai EASE af)Tof). Kai crapo4av af)Tbv To rvEf)pa To aketelaprov Kai Ocovficav ocovrj pEria73 ef1A61Ev af)Tof). (KATA MAPKON1.22-26)
B7. AeyEt ceoTO) ó 7r7o-ac, 'Eyoi eijii 11 686c darjOEta iccà i conj. of)(5Eic pzeTat vac- Tay 7ra-cepa Ei pi) 61' kitofi. (KA TA IS2ANNHN 14:6)
B8. ErrcEv 5e, "Avepwrdc Tic EIXEV 81/K) 11101c. icatEr7TEV 0 vEoirEpoc of)To5v iraTpi, HarEp, 86c pot Tà ertPc/caov ,uepoc Tiç of)•iac. (KATA AOTKAN15:11-12)
B9. Kat rIcav eK To5v Oaptcaiwv. Or av af)TO, Ti oZv f3arTicEtc- Ei al) o& Er XptcTac of)6e '11.1,1ag. oi56e 6 7rpoOrirric arEviOri af)Toic ó 'Icoavvric 2,eycov, 'Eyd) Par/rico) (KA TA IS2ANNHN 1:24-26)
B10. dolAa 411Eic Of) ITHSTE'6ETE, oT1 01)1C ecTe kiC To5v rpoi3aTcov TCOv k#á5v. th rpoPaTa rà epee Tilc ocoviic you dtKoijouctv, Kayth ylvoicKco of)Ta, icth aKoAdoveof)civ pot, Kayth 618copt at)Tofc cor)v aiojvtov, icaI of) yr) derdAcovrou Eic Tay aia3va, oi4 aprckaa Ttc aura eK Ttic zEtpoc pov. 6 car* pov oc oe6coKev pot pEicCOV 7rarmov kariv, K of)(5Eic 81/maTat apracEtv kK Tfic xEtpac Tor) raTpoc. eyth Kai 6 rceriip ev kayEv. (KATA IQANNHN 10:26-30, margin)
B11. eyveTo i5fula Oeof) br 7cocivvriv Tay Zaxapiov vial/ ev n lorrhucio. Kai rriA9Ev racav rriv rEpixwpov Tot-) 7op8avou Kriptjaccov PourTtqua pETavoiac el; &peaty apapTto5v. (KATA AOYKAN3:2-3)
B12. pakpoevpricaTE icth -15pEic, ciripiaTE rckç Kap(51a;ie),ucov, r) rapovaia Toi) Kvpiov rjyytKEV. (.1AKS2BOY 5:8)
*i3a7rricw: baptize; *158cop, i56aToc, To: water; *oiyzo;, -a, -ov: holy 013; thTdc,, To: ear
avaxpacw: cry out (aorist, dtvekpo/ta),
(141.169r7Tt: Be quiet!; crap4av: throwing into convulsions (neuter aorist participle)
*ot58Eic, ot')8Epia, of)6ev: no-one; p%Erat: (he) comes; Ei 'IA: except, unless; (51'. eta (elision)
vecoTEpoc, -a, ov: younger; doc: give (aor impv); briPoCAA,ov. falling by inheritance; pepoc, -ov; 7-6: part; oi)o-ia, r): property
'HAiac, -cm 6: Elijah; aireviOri: (he) answered
*EK: belonging to, #2.65(b), #A4.38; Here there is an exception to 2.17(a): what is it? *ylvokyKco: know; *aioivioc, -ov: eternal; aro/low-rat: (they) would perish (aor3 subj); Eic rev aiciiva: to eternity, ever; ainracco: snatch; 6e6coKev: (he) has given; pEiccov, pEfc ov: greater; *,lrãç, rocca, rav (ravroc): every, all
Ζαχαρίας, -ου, ὁ: Zachariah; gepizcopoc, --ov, 7): surrounding region; Ἰορδάνης, -ου, ὁ: Jordan (River); μετάνοια, -ας, ἡ: repentance; ἄφεσις, -εως, ἡ: forgiveness; *ἁμαρτία, -ίας, ἡ: sin
paKpoeupew: wait patiently; παρουσία, -ας, ἡ: coming, arrival; ἤγγικα: perfect from ἐγγίζω, I draw near

•poou no1c lap spJom Fuopmpr /Cur Joj X.Truollom moic osa
Z1-6: S NOLLVIgAgN 61 E 8 I-gl :91 A/ORLIN/1AI .81 E AORLIVIN •L I 'EJ
:sogessr,_ 2wmolloj gqi putai (sio2oN pui Jovouo!N JO `JOIJOASOJD puu No!nuaz) sIsiCteuv ropuwwrie moic 2u!sa •uowulsoi mad NooiD otp wag Xpoo.im 2wpuoi w2oq of XpuoJ mot.' on no],
.LAM/WISH," MaN Na1110 mu NI SaDVSSVd AHVINIMAIHrlddaS
vedu gilds ‘JOAOS `Jopuns `olundos :0951cicoX two( `111a429.35aD WOJJ :43(1353A(1.0 tiOgUOIOU :(113 + )1(2-0) 12331c10 `SE OS 1E111 OS :31DT* ttisou 459.>ichop eci2p.o* tog film (Xotii) :120140D3 ttrUWOM `O.JIM 459.311DARA Ititait* tpolIun oq illm (NO :w23.0.191tryaxpocht tntpow 45od2tin' `cflatni*
toNusJoj `oAroi :cozpro.2,Dy torewoj :a-`D13- `5ayli9 taluw :o (50/13-) A3- 6ALIDCip tL1011E0.10 41 '5(03- 451.01131 :011.1M :coOpcht* tssoupoinoqpnq :4 45D- `ioigchoyodityD XUMP pugs `oalow :mciyaitp* toopou oaloABD :92 `no- `ito1D172Do21p troq 'Halos 4a0- ‘Ao!og tiltund 'mollu :0n13chilq
(oAIxouoi) jios..m0A :/q/- `A02aD3D tirtoqq2lou :oToRre atli gTJM `(ctioAp-e) .eau tpu000s :A0- `19- 450C131c139 gifuo_ns Socl- `59,XD1 2wvirel5.lopun 'pupil .4 `So- `Dionopig to no' :copitao/tio tJaw.mj isowaioj 1.s..ig :A0- 45aitocht *
2wiluo .// 45(o3-
todoq `5121y* tpolluo o.I3M noX :321,104-p13 1.1011xo `o2rmoouo :rnqywoochaii* t (a Amugul lspor) uotp2uo.ns Oi Jopio ut ://oidLi2D 92 513 t_TaNJom-molloj :9 'a° 459.tcl34aD tXt.powa :9 `no- `5039or1u `pugs
(6-V01 NONdVIN VIVN)
.co235idcoX 1,1r1 5aigoc194p A3 (1.35'3A(1.0 5039 9 Ap O .thp.o Dirt ;on/2p oci9 32.ofp .4virf WitipD 513 On !O 1172x% 0.03 11731 `401c110 20.)11104(12 A(11 500311 nol3Dliettyyo..31Docht 17331 17d321.111 414.1, 173 1 galctio iocIpoz A91 50.1109(.49Al2 131/q31(20 1D-31 (101c101 43.3131, •5.a0ixp Aaoti!wq aylie 1)931 439dp 5(03.01231 51.achp g oirp 'Attlf,1101 4111(0143 A411 Alric1 431foodit A(011c1 ADWCID.NOCRIVID A1,11 Sodj j `.5101c1X1 A31113 5a0DILL 39 ..voDgyai.op 1v)1 volliperA. (10!D;01D0113 Aor(my 5twoxopv A3143C11311a `A101113 3g 10
NONdVIN VIVN)
"A1193 yclo 14y02xt3 Lt? 1x1 AC01(101 A(051311 A91(1203D 5(0 (10.0 AO1DLIVI A9.2 513.0(111D/ty 41.1.2(1D Dcf31a39 •aao 5ocap!5112 5Ltyp ;.53 11031 aao So!oitioig 514 511,y9 3 11331 (10.0 51a(1111 5111 51-1K9 aao 5vwcha31 51.c2 _5Ltyp 3aao 4039 401 4oicict31 513.01m/tip 12031 'MID.? 513 5oicici31 4(2)4 5039 0 5oiciciy `y(Dodoi, '3aa31y, `4120 111(1Kill 119 5a0DLIL 9 ileici.N3lip
(9-17:t7 .7,t01-1703 TOM) '41.010.11
A3 12031 409141021 pig 1X731 4o-24p.11 1213 4/101mp11 dC rnt pax 5039 513 `10 11.01111p 4.511.0111 10171 `501 (131 513 .40311c1 5(03D4r1 541 1911,ty bin' 4.7 32110li213 11031 5(:001031 41311a3411 x13 1 x331 'io11o)D (Z:E TIJNINOVV=0 Tann 'Agnicl 50)31.01 .11 541 011(1 11793' /X13117 11731 .520111 1101CILL1.0 02 5!3 ‘(101511CIX a02 th1y3L{D13 C01 x13 ao39 c1.02 49/W34aD 11031 4Wri4 40O (3g) 402 '403991111 437750.1h713.113 110.31
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</div>

<div id="L6" class="Lesson">
LESSON SIX 
THE MIDDLE AND PASSIVE VOICE 
6.1 THE PASSIVE AND MIDDLE VOICES OF THE VERB 
6.11 So far we have covered only the active voice of the verb — where the subject of the verb is the doer of the action of the verb, that is, where the action of the verb moves outwards from the subject. It could be described diagrammatically as: 
VERB
SUBJECT
There are two other voices in Greek: the passive, and the middle. 
6.12 The passive voice has the same meaning and operates in the same way as in English: the subject of the sentence is the person or thing upon whom the action of the verb is carried out. (Examples: "Blessed are those who mourn, for they shall be comforted." "The word was spoken by the prophet in days of old.") It could be described diagrammatically as: 
SUBJECT
VERB
6.13 The middle voice is (as its name suggests) between the active and the passive in its function. No simple explanation is possible of what the middle voice is: in fact, its function and meaning can vary from verb to verb. The middle voice can be found used in four ways: 
1. Commonly, the middle voice is used for intransitive verbs, that is. where the action of the verb does not carry over to an object but solely affects the subject. (Examples: "The water boiled." "He paused." "The child laughed.") Often the subject of a middle voice verb is acting for himself or in his own interests. 
2. Closely related to the first use, the middle voice can have a reflexive sense — the action was done to or for the subject. (Examples: "He exercised for thirty minutes, then bathed and dressed.") 
6.14 These two basic usages shade into each other. Something of the force of the middle can be seen in these Greek New Testament examples, which you should consider: 
Acts 8:32 Acts 18:18 John 13:14 Matthew 27:24 Matthew 27:31 Mark 6:9 Acts 21:24 Acts 21:25 
A lamb is dumb before the one who is shearing it (Keipco, in the active), but Paul had his head shorn (also Keipco, but this time in the middle). Jesus washed the disciples' feet (active of vigtco), but Pilate washed his hands (middle voice of vinTco). They put on him his own clothes (active of kv815co), but Do not put on two tunics (middle of ev86(o). You yourself keep the law (active of OuAticacno), but They are to keep themselves from idol food (middle of Ov)lio-act)). 
However, the middle voice was falling out of use in koine Greek, and it is not always found where it might be expected. Thus Matthew and Luke use the active voice of 01Aciao-co in a passage where it is appropriate for the middle to be used, whereas in this passage Mark does use the middle: 
Matthew 19:20 Mark 10:20 Luke 18:21 
All these I have kept (e015A.4a — active of Ov)ticacco) All these I have kept (e0tgadeliriv — middle of Ov)accrw) All these I have kept (kOlAaa — active of OvAticaco)
76 

SIX: THE MIDDLE AND PASSIVE VOICE 77 
6.15 The reflexive use of the middle is seen in: Matthew 27:5 Judas went away and hanged himself (middle). But it is more common to find a reflexive expressed by an active voice and the reflexive pronoun, as in: John 17:19 
I sanctify myself (active voice + reflexive pronoun). 
6.16 Most commonly the middle voice will be rendered in English by the active voice, occasion-ally with the added pronoun (himself, for himself, etc.), and at times with a construction that indicates that the subject had the action carried out upon himself. The middle voice could be described diagrammatically as: 
VERB SUBJECT
6.17 The other two uses of the middle voice in Greek are: 3. Some verbs have developed a distinctive meaning in the middle voice which is only rather distantly related to their active meaning. NOTE these seven verbs particularly, to avoid confusion and misunderstanding. They are: 
Active Middle 
aipew daro618w,ut eirCTW dePP) Kon-caakti@avw icom-w geiew
I take away I repay I light I rule/govern I obtain I cut I persuade
aipeopat ago8i8opat di7r201.iat dpxopat KaTa2,a,uPavoyat icon-witat gEieopat
I choose I sell I touch I begin I realize/learn I mourn/lament I obey
4. A number of verbs have only a middle form, without any corresponding active voice. These verbs have an active meaning and (in accordance with the connotations of the middle voice) they are intransitive or where they do require or can have an object it will be in a case other than the accusative. These verbs are known as deponent middle verbs. There are also a small number of deponent passive verbs, that is, verbs which use the passive voice forms rather than the middle, but with active meaning. A small number of deponents, of which c'urokpivoyat, "answer", is the most common, can use both middle and passive forms. 6.18 A comprehensive list of 59 verbs which are (always, or frequently) deponent in the Greek New Testament is given in #C7.5. Of these, there are twenty-four which occur more than 20 times each, and which therefore are particularly to be noted. These are: 
agokpivogat Cur rop apveopat dipxo,uat acurdecouat f3a0i,o,uat yivopat &opal.
answer touch deny begin greet want become beseech
6exo,uat 6t5vailat kpyacopat przoliat evayyeA,icopat r)yeoyat OEdeopat ideojuat
receive be able work come preach think/lead look at heal
taierbuat icavxdoyat ICEIllat Aoyicopat 7ropeoopat n-po6Et4opat OoPeopat xapicoktat
sit down boast lie down account/reckon go/proceed pray fear grant/forgive 
6.19 Verbs that are deponent in the present are (almost without exception) deponent in the other tenses also (the only exceptions to note are that yivoyat is yeyova in the perfect, and the suppletive 4)zoyat has active aorist and perfect forms from e),19- [ PLOov, OLTP.,v0a]). In addition, there are fourteen verbs (set out in #C7.6) which are deponent in their future tense in the New Testament and have active forms in their other tenses. These are all quite common and important 

78 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
verbs, and should be noted carefully. It is important to be able to recognize a deponent form, so that it can be correctly interpreted. 
6.2 THE PARADIGM OF THE MIDDLE VOICE 
6.21 The middle voice has its own set of pronoun endings, which are added to the same stem as for the active. The six Greek tenses fall into two groups, which are known as the primary and sec-ondary tenses. The primary and secondary tenses have slightly different pronoun endings. They are: Characteristic Primary Tenses (Present, Secondary Tenses (Imperfect, Letter Future, Present Perfect) Aorist, Pluperfect) 
SINGULAR 1 2 3 PLURAL 1
2
3
p o-T p a r
-pat -cat -rat -ge0a -o-Oe - vrat
- 11111 V - CTO - TO -p,e0a -aee -v TO
6.22 NOTE that the secondary tenses are the ones that take the augment (in the indicative mode, indicating past time), whereas the primary tenses do not. The secondary tenses are also known as the historic tenses. NOTE the characteristic letters found for 1st, 2nd and 3rd person (p, a, r) which also surface in other places — the -p- and -o-- in the personal pronouns kith, pe, 01j, etc., and in eitidc, ad; kilaurdv, aeaurdv; and the -1-- in a'ord; aroc, and the article. 
6.23 The same procedures are used as in the active voice for adding the endings to the lexal: the present tense adds the neutral morph -e- or -o- to the lexal and then takes the primary endings; the future is the same as the present with the -a- future morph inserted between the lexal and the endings; the imperfect has the augment, adds the neutral morph -e- or -o- to the lexal and then takes the secondary endings; the first aorist has the augment, adds the punctiliar morph -aoc- (-a-before vowels) to the lexal and then takes the secondary endings. The one difference is that the present perfect does not have the perfective morph -Ica- (as in the active) but adds the ending straight on to the reduplicated lexal. The pluperfect is rare, and so is not set out here (it is given in #C1.1); like the present perfect middle, it adds its endings (the secondary endings) straight on to the lexal, and takes the augment — thus giving the form ble)d)dunv. However, in use the pluperfect frequently omits the augment. Some verbs form their pluperfect middle and possibly some forms of their perfect middle as well by the use of the perfect middle participle and the imperfect tense of eigt, or the present tense respectively. These are known as periphrastic tenses, and will be covered more fully at a later time (#10.6). 
6.24 There is one complication: the -a- of the second person singular is squeezed out and disap-pears in the present, future, imperfect, and aorist tenses, and the neutral morph -E- (or the -a- in the aorist) then contracts with the vowel that follows the lost -a- into a diphthong or long vowel. 
6.25 The indicative and subjunctive middle paradigm flexions for AtSco are: 
INDICATIVE: Primary Tenses Secondary Tenses SUBJUNCTIVE
51 2 3 P1 2 3
Present Aixwat AA')7312,15et kberat Avoyeea A-Oeo-Oe Atjovrat
Future Perfect Imperfect Aikyoduat AeAvyat eAvopriv 2.1jo-r3 AeAvaat eAtjov ktjaerat AE) vrat eiatjew Avo-opeOa Aatjpe0a eAvoye9a AtjaecOe AeAvaVE atjecee Aijo-ovrat AeAvvrat atjovro
1st Aorist Present Aorist 01. vozip r7 v Aticopat Alkico,uat blijaco ktjarii kAijaaw Aijrirat Atjo-rirat aucakte6a Avd)peOa A,voi3Oyeea kAtjaaaVe Atjno-t9e koaricele 0,10-avro Atjcovrat A1')acovrat 

SIX: THE MIDDLE AND PASSIVE VOICE 79 
6.26 As in the active voice, there are two tenses of the subjunctive in common use, the present and the aorist. The present subjunctive middle is the same as the present indicative middle but with the neutral morph -e- or -o- lengthened to -77- and -co- respectively (and iota being subscript on -77-). Thus the subjunctive morph (as in the active voice) is not something that is added to the word, but a process morph'8. Again, as in the active, the aorist subjunctive middle is identical with the present subjunctive middle but with the aorist morph -a- inserted between the lexal and the endings. This means that in the subjunctive the aorist follows the primary pattern of endings (and has no augment, and does not relate to past time) — contrast its secondary pattern in the indicative mode. 
6.27 There are two possible forms of the 2nd person singular present indicative, A1573 and ,vet. Both forms are identical with others which occur elsewhere in the paradigms — aver with the 3rd person singular present indicative active (#2.81) and Aijo with the 3rd person singular present sub-junctive active (#4.21) and also with the 2nd person singular present subjunctive middle (#6.25). Usually the context will make it clear which form is intended (just as the context in English will usually make it clear, when one sees "read", "put", etc., whether the present or past tense is meant). But occasionally (in Greek, as in English) a form is encountered which is ambiguous. 
6.28 Another pair of identical forms, to which the same comments apply, are the 2nd person singular future indicative middle and aorist subjunctive middle, both of which are Aljav (#6.25). 
6.29 The present, aorist and perfect middle for the imperative, infinitive and participle are: IMPERATIVE: Present First Aorist Perfect SINGULAR 2 koou 2.15aat Aeiavo-o 3 Aveaeco ilvado-Ow AzA,Ijoreco PLURAL 2 AfiEa9E Atjo-acee AOLvo-Oe 3 Aueaewaav Avoyia0coo-av ilatja0coaav INFINITIVE: Aljeo-Oca Atjaaceat AeAtjaeat PARTICIPLE: Avopevoc, -ri, -ov AvaapEvoc,, -77, -ov Aowyevo;-, -17, -ov 
6.3 POINTS TO NOTE 
6.31 The 2nd person plural present, Atjeo-Oe, is the same in form for the imperative (see above) as for the indicative (#6.25); we have already noted that this was true also for the active voice (Atjere: #3.51). Similarly, the 2nd plural imperative of the perfect, Ai.Avo-Be (see above) is also the same as the indicative (#6.25). In the aorist indicative and imperative, these same forms are distinguished only by the augment — it is prefixed to the aorist form in the indicative (eAtjaaa0e), but absent in the imperative (Aicao-Oe). The forms for other persons and numbers are distinctive. 
6.32 Another pair of identical forms needs now to be noted: the 2nd person singular aorist middle imperative, Aficat (#6.29), is the same in form as that for the aorist infinitive (see #4.21). 
6.33 Future Middle forms can occur for the infinitive and participle — as usual, they are the same as for the present, with the future morph added in in Slot 6. These forms are very rare.
6.34 The letters -o19- comprise the specifier morph (Slot 8) for the middle imperative and infinitive; but this morph is absent from the forms for all tenses of the 2nd person singular imperative. Nor does it occur in the flexions of the indicative middle (except, incidentally, in the 2nd person plural forms) — these forms have to be identified as middle by the distinctive sets of middle pronoun suffixes which they have, which bear some similarities to the equivalent suffixes for the active but are distinguishably different from them. However, when -60- does occur in Slot 8 in a word, it identifies that word form as middle.

80 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
6.35 The morph -μεν- occurs in all middle participles and only in middle participles, and thus is a specifier morph (Slot 8): it effectively identifies any word in which it occurs as being a middle participle form. It can be noted that each participle consists of: the lexal, the aspect morph (the neutral morph -o- for the present tense, -o-a- for the first aorist, and prefixed reduplication for the perfect), the specifier morph for the middle participle, and then the respective numbercase endings of the First and Second Declensions. In all tenses, the middle participle declines in the pattern of the First and Second Declensions (see the complete set of paradigm flexions in Appendix D, #D5.14—D5.16).
6.36 NOTE THAT the specifier morph occupies the eighth of the verb's nine morph slots. 

6.37 However, it is about to be explained (#6.5) that all the various middle forms for the future and aorist tenses can be "switched" to the passive voice by the insertion of the passive morph in Slot 5, and the middle forms for the present/imperfect and the perfect tenses can be either middle or passive in meaning. 
6.38 The same linguistic modification rules given earlier (#4.5) apply when adding -a- and when adding the endings of the perfect tense to a consonant verb stem. (Further details of these linguistic modifications are set out in #10.45.) In almost all cases, the verb, and the effect of the -a- or the fact that it is perfect tense (as the case may be), will be easily recognizable. Difficult and irregular cases will be explained fully in your Analysis (Zerwick and Grosvenor, or Rienecker and Rogers) when you encounter them in reading your Greek New Testament.
6.4 THE FUTURE INDICATIVE AND THE OTHER MODES OF EIMI 
6.41 The verb eigi is deponent in the future indicative, and has the lexal k- and the endings of the middle of 2;t5co (but note that the 3rd person singular form is c,s-'rat, not "eaEwa"). 
6.42 INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE IMPERATIVE INFINITIVE PARTICIPLE Future Present Present Present: ervat thy oijo-a ov Si &To,uat CO I' Future: Eaea6at kcroyevog, -77, -ov 2 E077 llg icret (The declension of thy 3 Ecnat 13 &-rcohjt-co follows #D5.11. See P1 kaoyeeaCriyIEV #C6, Conjugation 2 $fTeogt9E TITE EazE Conspectus, for the 3 Eaovrat dig t (v) 65-rcoaav eipi Paradigm.) 
6.43 NOTE> that there are several forms of the subjunctive and participle of which are differentiated from other words only by their accent, breathing, and/or iota subscript (and two forms, in fact, which are identical with others): 
(a) The 1st person singular subjunctive di is identical in form with the exclamation "0" or "oh". 
(b) The 2nd person singular subjunctive rjg differs only in having an iota subscript from the 2nd person singular imperfect of eipi (#3.81). 
(c) The 3rd person singular subjunctive 73 differs in accent and iota subscript from "or" or "than" (#4.15). 
(d) The 2nd person plural TITE is identical in form for the subjunctive and the imperfect of 
(e) The masculine nominative singular participle div [see also #8.34(a)] is to be distinguished from div the genitive plural of the relative pronoun (#4.15) by the breathing and accent. (0 The neuter nominative singular participle eiv is to be distinguished from eiv the masculine accusative singular of the relative pronoun (#4.15) by its breathing. 

SIX: THE MIDDLE AND PASSIVE VOICE 81 
6.5 THE PARADIGM OF THE PASSIVE VOICE 
6.50 The passive voice in Greek is a distinct voice different from the active and middle in sense. However, it only has distinctive passive forms – with the passive morph – in the future and aorist tenses; for the present and perfect tense systems, the passive borrows and uses the corresponding forms of the middle voice. This means that whenever the middle forms of the durative or perfective are used, they could be either middle or passive in meaning. Thus it becomes a question of exegesis and interpretation to say which is intended. 
INDICATIVE Present Future Perfect
S1 tOrjaoyat 2 Averj 3 Aver-jar/rat P1 A.vOrio-opeea 2 Av9ri6e68e 3 A,verjaovrat INFINITIVE 2,v9rjaeoVat PARTICIPLE i Avaricroyevoc
Points to notice:
Imperfect Aorist oct5eriv oct5eng eAl')Ori e2;661r7pev eAtjenTE eA;69no-av
2,vefival
SUBJUNCTIVE Present Aorist i .1v1965 AvOrig Avarj Aveciiiiev Aver-ire Avea50-t(v)
),v0eig,9ei6a, AvOev, ,0evToc
IMPERATIVE Present Aorist
t 2;t5Orytt 2,v9rjro)
2,1jOriTe 21)194Tcoo-av
6.51 In the table, a dash (—) indicates that the form does not exist; an obelus (t) means that there are no special passive forms for that flexion but instead in these cases the middle forms are used for the passive voice as well as for the middle voice. 
6.52 The passive morph is -Oe-, the -e- of which lengthens into -77- before a consonant (except in the aorist participle), and contracts with the following vowel (the lengthened neutral morph) in the subjunctive. There is thus for most verbs a very clear indication of the passive in all its special forms. The passive morph occupies the fifth of the verb's nine morph slots. 
6.53 The aorist indicative passive is formed by adding the passive morph -OE- (which lengthens to - On-) to the lexal, and to this are then added directly the endings of the third aorist active (from which in fact the passive was developed, as described in #C3.86; see also #7.72-7.73). That is to say, like the third aorist, the aorist passive does not have an aspect morph. 
6.54 The future indicative passive is formed from the aorist indicative passive by replacing the final -v of the flexion form with -o-opat, that is, with the endings of the future middle flexion. Thus the presence of the passive morph -077- is the sole feature which distinguishes the future passive from the future middle. That is, -en- switches the verb form from middle voice to passive voice. 
6.55 The aorist subjunctive passive has the same pronoun endings as the aorist subjunctive active (#4.21), adding them to the passive morph -OE-, which is taken instead of the active/middle punctiliar morph -cr-. The -e- of the passive morph then contracts (#6.8) with the endings, and this contraction is marked by the circumflex accent over the contracted long vowels. 
6.56 There are, however, some verbs which make their passive flexion without the -0- of the passive morph (so that in these verbs the passive morph is just -E- or -71-: this flexion is called a direct flexion – these are discussed below, in #10.9 and #C4); and at times some of the forms of these verbs may not immediately be recognized as passives because of the absence of the -9- of the 

82 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
usual passive morph. The future passive is always derived directly from the form of the aorist passive, so if the latter is a direct flexion, then the future passive will be a direct flexion also. 
6.57 The ending of the 2nd person singular imperative passive is -et, which would give the form "Aljeriet". However, Greek seeks to avoid having successive syllables commencing with an aspirate (see #E2.8). The passive morph -OE- never loses its aspiration, so the aspiration is lost from the ending, which becomes -it, and thus the form is 2,69Ty2i. But when the imperative ending is added to any verb which has a direct flexion, that ending is -61, because in the case of a direct flexion the ending does not follow another -0-. The remaining forms of the aorist passive imperative have the same pronoun endings as the aorist active imperative (#4.21). 
6.58 The feminine participle, A,velefaa, having a sibilant stem, is declined like &got (#3.15); the masculine and neuter forms Gaut9eig, 2v6ev, genitive 1 v9ev2og) follow the usual Third Declension pattern (see eipzcov, dipxovrog, in #5.44) and are set out in full in Appendix D, #D5.17. 
6.59 Where Knowing Greek Makes a Difference: The Aijco compound duccAlko is the word for "I divorce", and ki5o) itself has this meaning when used in a context about marriage, and in such a context SEW refers to being in the marriage bond (Romans 7:2; 1 Corinthians 7:39; cf. 1 Corinthians 7:15). As there is no separate Greek flexion for the passive perfect tense, the middle forms are used (#6.50, 6.51). Thus the form AiA.vo-at (see #6.25) means "you have been loosed" or, in a context relating to marriage, "you have been divorced"; and similarly 6e8eaat means "you have become joined in the bonds of marriage". In each case the perfect tense form is looking at the present state resulting from a prior act [#4.31(c)]. These words occur in 1 Corinthians 7:27, where Paul says, in a context about marriage, 8e8eo-at yvvatici; µi cri2El ,1361,V, "Have you become bound [in marriage] to a wife? Do not seek a divorce." He then goes on, A,e,a,vo-at (bra yvvattc6; ,u7) ;rim yvvalica, "Have you been divorced from a wife? Do not seek a wife." He then immediately adds, My 8e Kai yogi:rim-3c, °iv riyareg, "But if indeed you do marry, you have not sinned." The construction shows that Paul is addressing the same person, the one who has been divorced, when he says "But if indeed you do marry". Paul's teaching is clear in the Greek: If you have entered a marriage, do not seek to break that marriage bond with your wife. If you have become divorced, do not seek for a new wife. But if you (the person who has been divorced) do marry, then this remarriage is not a sin. This teaching is in line with what Paul has said earlier in this chapter: as the Lord himself commanded, marriage partners are not to break up (verse 10, citing Matthew 19:6). If a marriage does break up, then the former marriage partner is now dyapoc, "unmarried" — let that person continue unmarried in hope that there can be a reconciliation (verse 11). However, speaking realistically, such a reconciliation may not be possible: what then? In verse 8 Paul addresses all who are dya,uot (and, as we have just seen, the word includes those who are divorced). He tells them to see if they can now remain unmarried as he himself did, but adds that if they cannot live celibate then ya,uriadcroxYav, "they must marry" — third person aorist imperative (verse 9). If you know Greek, you will recognize the significance, for understanding Paul's meaning, of these words otyapot, yaptio-thcoo-av, and the perfect tense 2L.vcrat. Some versions of the Bible translate A,OLvaat in 1 Corinthians 7:27 as a present tense (for example, NRSV, "Are you free from a wife?"; and the very ambiguous NIV, "Are you unmarried?"), obscuring the fact that when Paul says "you have not sinned" he is addressing someone who has been divorced and has remarried. 
6.6 SELF-TESTING REVIEW 
6.61 MEANING SYNOPSIS OF THE GREEK VERB: You have now been introduced to all nine morph slots of the Greek verb. And all the forms of Paradigm C1.1, A..tjw, have now been introduced (except the rarely used optative, and perfect subjunctive). The flexion form for each flexion, and its meaning, will be found set out in the Meaning Synopsis of the Greek Verb, #C0.4. 

SIX: THE MIDDLE AND PASSIVE VOICE 83 
6.62 REVIEW the Indicative Mode (#C0.43), and satisfy yourself that you can correctly identify the tense and voice, and the meaning, of each of these forms. To do this, cover the right-hand (English meaning) part of each column with a piece of paper, exposing only the left-hand Greek forms, and alongside each Greek word write on your piece of paper its tense, voice and meaning. Remove the paper and verify the correctness of your answers. To extend your knowledge further, you can do this with the other modes also.
6.63 RCOMPLETE PARADIGM OF THE VERB: The complete paradigm of the forms of ki.° is set out in #C1.1. Go through this paradigm to ensure that you are familiar (except for the optative) with the verb patterns given there, and know them well enough to recognize the characteristic morphs which indicate person, number, tense, voice, and mode. 
6.64 DIAGRAM OF THE NINE VERB MORPH SLOTS: Note #A6.2 and A6.3, which set out a complete diagram of the nine morph slots of the verb and of what morphs can occur in each slot. 
6.7 RCONCERNING THE SECOND AORIST AND THE IMPERFECT 
6.71 It has been seen (#4.23, #4.37) that the first aorist active is formed by prefixing the augment to the verb lexal and adding first the punctiliar morph -aa- (-a- before vowels) and then the active suffixes of the pronoun ending. Thus the 1st person plural first aorist active of co is e-A,v-aa-pev. The second aorist active is formed in the same way, but with the neutral morph -E/o-used instead of the punctiliar morph (#3.81, #4.36). Thus the 1st person plural second aorist active of Petaw is k-f3a2,-o-REv. 
6.72 This pattern is followed by the aorist in the middle voice also, the fact that the form is middle not active being indicated by the use of the middle suffixes of the pronoun ending. Thus the 1st person singular of the first aorist middle, as seen in Aijco, is k-,,v-aa-yriv, and the 1st person singular of the second aorist middle, as seen in fkicao), is e-PaA-o-itriv. 
6.73 The imperfect is also formed by adding to the lexal: an augment, the neutral morph, and the appropriate pronoun suffix. This means that for Second Conjugation verbs (that is, those with a second aorist), the only difference between their imperfect and aorist flexions is in their lexal. Seven Second Conjugation verbs use completely different lexals in the present (and these are set out in #7.6); most of the rest — there are only two exceptions — add an extra morph to their lexal as a durative morph in forming their durative stem, for the present and imperfect tenses. For Sca2,co this durative morph is the second -A-- which is added to the verb root saA,-. Thus the Imperfect and Aorist Indicative Middle flexions, and the flexions for other modes of the second aorist middle, are: 
IMPERFECT Indicative Si 0a2A6uriv 2 430,A,ov 3 ef30,AETo P1 OaaopesSia 2 460,2,ea6E 3 e13Cia0V20
SECOND AORIST Indicative Subjunctive Imperative
46a2,6unv ei3aov Oa LETo OaAoitte0a ei@oaEat9E kikaovTo
Peawpat — f3carii PaAof) PdariTat f3a2,eaeco (3aAtoye9a f3laria0e Pdaectie PeawvTat f3aAe68coaav
Infinitive PaAeaeat Participle PaA6Atevog (3aA,opevri f3a2,6,uevov Pa2,Quevov
PRESENT Infinitive f3cia)LEaeat Participle [3a2,2,6yevog f3aA)Loyevr7 PaaoktEvov PaAAo,uevov
6.74 Compare the forms of the Imperfect and Aorist Indicative, and note that the only difference between them is whether they do or do not have the second -A-, the durative morph. Similarly, this is the only difference between the forms of the Present and the Aorist in the other modes (the forms of the Present Infinitive and Participle are given here alongside those of the Aorist for comparison). 

84 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
6.75 The durative morph is added into the verb's lexal, and thus in morphologizing the verb (#3.93) the durative morph will be placed with the lexal in the lexal slot (Slot 4). A morph which is placed into the lexal in this way is termed an infix (#1.92). The durative morph in the lexal is the only infix which occurs in Greek — all other morphs are prefixes or suffixes or process morphs. [A partial exception to this is the iota added into the lexal of some liquid verbs in compensation for the loss of the punctiliar -o--: see #4.57(a).]
6.8 CONTRACT VERBS (PARADIGMS C1.2, C1.3 AND C1.4) 
6.81 The most numerous group of Greek verbs (404 out of a total of 1000 verbs in the New Testament) are those which end in a short vowel, either -a (78), -e (235), or -o (91). In the durative tenses (the present and imperfect), the neutral morph is added to the lexal, which in the case of these verbs will mean adding E or o (or when the neutral morph has been lengthened, 77 or co) to the short vowel (-a, -E or -o). When they thus come together, these two vowels (the short vowel of the lexal and the neutral morph) combine and form either a long vowel or a diphthong. This combining is known as contraction, and these verbs which contract the final vowel of their lexal with the neutral morph are therefore known as "Short Vowel Verbs" and also "contract verbs". 
6.82 Contraction takes place in accordance with specific rules. These rules are given in detail in #E2.2; the common ones (which therefore need to be noted now) are set out here: 
This table shows the contractions which take place. When it is followed by E 17 El 13 0 01) CO then: a contracts to a a ce a co cv co E contracts to Et rj Cl ov ov co o contracts to ov Co 01 01 ov ov
6.83 Points to note:
(a) Any short vowel plus cv is absorbed into it.
(b) a plus E or ri becomes long a; if there is an t, it will be iota subscript on the long a.
(c) a plus o, ov or co becomes Co.
(d) e plus e or et becomes et.
(e) e plus ri or 73 is absorbed into it.
(f) E plus o or ov, o plus E, 0, or 01) becomes ov.
(g) o plus n becomes co.
(h) o plus et or 73 becomes ot.
6.84 NOTE the accent on a contracted form. Where an acute accent would fall on the short final vowel in the uncontracted form, then the contracted vowel/diphthong will bear a circumflex. Thus rtycio) contracts to -Rua 2zaeopev to ALaofwev, iaripoetc to iaripoic, and so on. This circumflex accent should be noted, because frequently it fulfils a useful role in alerting you to a contraction. (This is the tenth occasion when an accent should be noted; for earlier ones, see #A1.37, #2.88, #3.37, #4.15, #4.94, #A4.23, #5.86, #5.88, and #6.43.)
6.85 The above information should assist in enabling you to recognize a contract verb form when you encounter one. Contract verbs in -a, -e, and -o comprise respectively Paradigms C1.2, C1.3 and C1.4 of the First Conjugation, and these paradigms, showing both the uncontracted and contracted forms, are set out in Appendix C under these references. In tenses other than the present and imperfect, the suffix that is added to the lexal commences with a consonant, and so no contraction of vowels occurs. 

SIX: THE MIDDLE AND PASSIVE VOICE 85 
6.86 All contract verbs are listed in the lexicon in their uncontracted form, because you need to know what that uncontracted form is. But they are always used in their contracted form. In practice ou will have little difficulty in recognizing and identifying a contract verb from its features — you will at times, however, have to check on the three possibilities for the lexical form of a contract verb (whether the lexal has -a, or -o), because the form used in a Greek passage will not always reveal if the verb ends in -acs, -ECO, or -00). 
6.87 As noted in #4.56 and #A4.23, liquid verbs add -E not -a in forming the future tense. But the neutral morph is then added to the future morph in forming the future. This means that the future tense of liquid verbs thus always has an -E- (future morph) followed by a neutral morph. It is therefore a contract flexion, and follows the pattern of 2,a2Leco, C1.3. Liquid verbs comprise Paradigms C1.8 and C1.9 of the First Conjugation, and these paradigms are set out in Appendix C under those references. In addition to those mentioned there, two other contracted futures occur in the New Testament: the deponents (c'tiro)0aveopai, from (earo)Ovrjo-ww (see #C2.4, #C7.6), and zeceo,uat, from n-brao (see #C2.1). 
6.88 Contraction also occurs in the other verb flexion where a short vowel is followed by another vowel: in the aorist passive subjunctive (#6.50), where the passive morph -Oe- is followed by the lengthened neutral morph. The same principles of contraction will operate in these forms. 
6.9 THE REFLEXIVE PRONOUN 
6.91 The reflexive pronouns refer to something directed towards oneself, as in "You shall love your neighbour as (you love) yourself'. 6.92 There can be no nominative; it declines in the oblique cases on the pattern of ay-roc (#3.32). There are forms for the three persons in the singular, but there was only one form in the plural, used for all persons. For first and second person singular, "myself" and "yourself", there were both masculine and feminine forms, and in the third person all three genders can be found. 6.93 epaurov, -rjv 1st person singular, "myself" 6EaVT6V, -rjv 2nd person singular, "yourself" kaurov, -0, -6 3rd person singular, "himself", etc. eaura6g, -ac, -6 1sti2nd/3rd plural, "ourselves", "yourselves", "themselves" 
ASSIGNMENTS ON LESSON SIX 1. PARADIGMS FOR LEARNING: The paradigms to be learnt by heart this Lesson are: 12. Present Indicative Middle of A;t3a) (#6.25): ,aijoyat 13. Perfect Indicative Middle of kow (#6.25): ,a.avitat 14. Imperfect Indicative Middle of koco (#6.25): avokinv 15. Other Modes of the Middle (#6.29): Present Imperative, Infinitive and Participle of )Liko 16. Future Indicative of eiyi (#6.42): P.o-opat 17. florist Passive Indicative of 2,ijo) (#6.50): kAt56riv 2. LEARNING THE OTHER MAJOR PARADIGMS OF THE MIDDLE AND PASSIVE: Aim to understand how the other flexions are formed from these ones set for rote learning, so that you will be able to recognize the forms of those other flexions which result. That is, seek to learn the forms of the other flexions by understanding rather than by rote. 3. APPENDIX: READ CAREFULLY the additional information set out in the Appendix, #A6. Especially NOTE the diagram of the Morph Slots of the Verb.

86 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
4. WORKBOOK: ANSWER THE QUESTIONS in your Workbook about this Lesson. 5. TRANSLATION EXERCISES A AND B: Do the English into Greek exercises, and then read and translate literally all the Selections from the Greek New Testament. Make sure that you continue the pattern of reading each Selection aloud before translating it, to help cultivate your "feel" for the Greek. NOTE: To do this work you will need to use the paradigms set for learning this Lesson, together with the paradigms and vocabulary of the previous Lessons. The new prepositions given below, and the cases they take, should be carefully noted. Most of the Selections introduce new vocabulary which is then used again in the Selections which follow. LEARN each unknown word as you use it. 6. VOCABULARY CARDS: Continue the practice of writing out Vocabulary Cards for the new words introduced in this Lesson, putting 6 (for "Lesson 6") in the top lefthand corner of each side of the Card. Make out the card for each new word as you come to it in the Sentences below; some words will be used in several Sentences. When you are given a word form and what it comes from, put the word it comes from at the top of your Card, and the information about that word form lower on the Card. Add these Cards to your collection, and place them all in alphabetical order. When additional information is provided about a word which you have had in a previous Lesson, add that information to your existing Vocabulary Card for that word. (Don't forget to put on your Card the case(s) taken by each preposition.) 7. ABBREVIATIONS IN THE NOTES (BELOW): see page 12.
PREPOSITIONS
*thie (+acc) because of, on account of
*&oc (+gen) until ogioyo (+gen) after
A. TRANSLATION FROM ENGLISH INTO GREEK (This may be done as an exercise in class at the end of the Lesson, or set as an assignment.) SENTENCES NOTES AND NEW WORDS Al. And (Se) why do you call me, 'Lord, Lord', call: *Kcaeco and do not do what I say?" (LUKE 6:46) A2. The stars will fall from the heaven. star: cio-rrip, -epo; (5; (MATTHEW 24:29) fall: *zig-ao; future: Ireaeo,uat
A3. For our (emphatic) citizenship is in (the) heavens, out of which also we expectantly await a saviour, (the) Lord Jesus Christ. (PHILIPPIANS 3:20) A4. You shall call his name Jesus, for he (emphatic) will save his people from their sins. (MATTHEW 1:21) A5. His father was a Greek. was: imperfect of * i')/rapzco; (ACTS 16:3) a Greek: "Early, -rivoc, 6 A6. Jesus said to him, "Do you (emphatic) believe in (Eic) the Son of Man?" That man answered and said, "And who is he, Lord, in order that I should believe in him?" (JOHN 9:35-36)
citizenship: gaai-rewia, -aroc, 1-6; be, exist: *157rapzco; expectantly await: dureK6exoyat
future of * KaAeco: Ka) eo-co; people, a people: *ila6c, -of), 6
answered: c'ureKpien (from *darovivoyat, passive deponent)


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L8 apion HAISSVd (INV glacuw MIL :XIS


88 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
B7. 6 7ricrof)c ErgEv afrrofg, Ilopeveevreg darayyei)LaTE 1wavvr,i a aKov'ETE Kai f3AegETE. 21)02.0i aVagAeTCOVO-1V !cal xogoi IrepuraTor)o-tv, AzIrpoi Kat9apicovtat Kai Ko)0o1 c'ex-a)ovo-tv, Kai veKpoi yeipovTat Kai 7rTwxoi Ef)ayyeA,IcovTat. Kai yaKaptog ko-Ttv og eav yr) o-Kavocato-01,1 epoi.
(KATA 1VIAO0AION 11:4-6) B8. (a) "Aaovg o-o)o-Ev, o-ox7dcTo) kavrov, El oZTOg kaTlii 6 Xpto-Tag- Tof) Oeof) 6 kKA,EKT6c. (KATA AOTKAN23:35) (/3) El cri) el 6 Pact)Lerog 2o3v 7ov8aiwv, o-clicov o-EavT6v. (KATA AOTKAN 23:37) (y) 01)zi cri) er, 6 XptoToc; coicrov oEavthv Kai ill flag. (KATA AOTKAN 23:39) (6) 'Inca, ,uvriaeriTi ktov ehav afkic-eig f3autAziav Gov. (KATA AOTKAN23:42) (E) Auriv cot 2,eyco, aripEpov el0f) C37:1Ev 2CO Kapa8eiacp. (KATA AOTKAN23:43) B9. "Atog Er, 6 Kt5ptog Kai 6 9Eac fip,o5v, A..aPeiv Try v 86av Kai rill/ Ttyr)v Kai TO otjvautv, ort o-1) bato-ac Tet 7TaVITX, Kai Sta To WAILLta o-ov rlaav Kai k Kticencray. (ATIOKAAPPIE Ii2ANNOT 4:11) B10. Kai rjKovo-a Ocovlig pEydarig elC Tof) Opovov Azyoikrric-, '1801) ri alcrivii Tot) 0E0f) 'JET& rci3v avepokwv, Kai o-Krivokret ,LLE2' afno5v, Kai afnoi af.)Toi5 o-ovTat, Kai at'nbc 6 t9eac ,LiEf af)2o5v afyro5v t9e6c-, Kai kaA,Eitifet gay 8dogyvov EK rcov 600capaiv afno5v, Kai 6 OavaToc of)K EG2al ET t, oihE trev(oc ofiTe Kpavyr) ofirE Kovoc of)K (51-1 th rpdra arfplOay. oi5rOt of )06yot Irlatth Kai dariestvoi Elatv. (AHOKAATTE IDANNOT 21:3-5)
alrayyeaw: announce, report, inform (2p1 aor. impv); avaiRew: see again; zoAog, -ov: lame; *IrEpuratew: walk around, move about, [live one's life]; Aorpog, of), 6: leper; KaOapico): cleanse, make clean; Kw0dc, -4, -6v: deaf; dumb; *vek-pog, -ov: dead; *kyeipw: raise (3p1 pass.); gmx6g, -6v: poor; *paKaptoc, -a, -ov: blessed, happy, fortunate; o-Kav8a2Licor cause to stumble, give offence, anger (someone) — in the pass., take offence, be made angry *kavTov: #6.93; kK.I.EKrog, -4,-6v: elect, chosen;
,uvricrarirt: 2sg dep. aor. impv. from ptiuvrjaKoitai (dep., takes gen.): remember (something, someone); *(51-av: whenever (indefinite — contrast the decisiveness of Christ's reply: "today");
aripEpov: today, this very day; gapa8Eto-og, -ov, 6: paradise, garden
gtog, -ov: worthy, deserving; AaPEN: aor2 inf. from *AapPavo): receive, take; Ttgrj, rei: honour, respect; *615vaiuzg, -EC0c, r): power; baterag: 2sg aor. from Klicco: create; *OeAripa, tó: will; kKtio-Orio-av: 3p1 aor. pass. from icricco: create *Opovoc, -ov, 6: throne; A,Eyoi)o-rig: fem. sg gen. ptc from *Aiyco, agreeing with Ocovfic-; ovrivri, tent, dwelling; avivoco: live, dwell; afxrac 6 0E6c: God himself (*af)Toc-in front of the article = self); k&.Eicpco: wipe away; Savvov, -ov, To: tear; *OavaToc-, -ov, 6: death; q21. still, longer; ireveog, -ova, ró: sorrow, sadness, grief; Kpavyri, III: crying, shout; govoc, -ov, 6: pain, suffering; deA,rietvoc, -rj, -6v: true, genuine
SUPPLEMENTARY PASSAGES IN THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
B11. MARK 6:1-6 B12. JOHN 1:1-5

</div>

<div id="L7" class="Lesson">
LESSON SEVEN 
ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS; THE SECOND AND THIRD CONJUGATIONS 
7.1 CORRESPONDING ADJECTIVES/PRONOUNS 
7.11 Greek contains sets of adjectives/pronouns which differ in function and are related in meaning (and often, in root). These corresponding sets are:

<table>
 <tr><th>TYPE</th><th>INTERROGATIVE</th><th>INDEFINITE</th><th>DEMONSTRATIVE</th><th>RELATIVE</th></tr>
 <tr><th>Identification</th><td>τίς; who?</td><td>τις anyone</td><td>ὁ, ὅδε, οὗτος this (one) ἐκεῖνος that, that one</td><td>ὅς who, which ὅστις who-, whichever</td></tr>
 <tr><th>Quantity</th><td>πόσος; how much/many?</td><td>ποσός of some quantity</td><td>τοσοῦτος so (as) much/many/great (as)</td><td>ὅσος as great/much/many as</td></tr>
 <tr><th>Quality</th><td>ποῖος of what kind? ποταπός of what kind?</td><td>ποιός of some kind</td><td>τοιόσδε of such kind τοιοῦτος of such kind</td><td>οἷος of what kind ὁποῖος such as</td></tr>
 <tr><th>Size</th><td>πηλίκος how large/great?</td><td>-</td><td>τηλικοῦτος so large, so great</td><td>ἡλίκος how large/great</td></tr>
 <tr><th>Distribution</th><td>πότερος which of the two?</td><td>-</td><td>ἕτερος the one or the other/another/different ἄλλος other ἕκαστος each, each one</td><td>-</td></tr>
</table>

7.12 Most of these words can occur either with a noun (that is, the word is functioning as an adjective), or without a noun (that is, the word is functioning as a pronoun). 
7.13 Note how τοσοῦτος, τοιοῦτος and τηλικοῦτος are formed by replacing the initial ῾/τ- of οὗτος with τοσ-, τοι- and τηλικ- respectively. The declension of the flexion of each of these words follows οὗτος. 
7.14 ME, Ti8E, To& is a demonstrative pronoun/adjective formed by adding the enclitic 6E to the definite article, which is declined in the ordinary way. Its meaning is the same as that of oZrog: "this/these" (without a noun, "this man/woman/thing"). It does not often occur in the New Testament, and the majority of its occurrences is in the expression Ta8e 2, yet plus the speaker in the nominative, as in Acts 21:11, id& Xeyet Tà nve13,ua zo aytov, "These things says the Holy Spirit." 
7.15 oo-Ttg, fiTtg, 21 is a relative pronoun similar in meaning to og, if, 5, but made rather general or indefinite by the addition of -Ttg, meaning "whoever, everyone who", etc. The neuter ö Tt is often written that way, as two words, to distinguish it from 5Tt, "that, because". Otherwise the two parts of the word are written in combination together as a single word — but both parts of the word are declined in the usual way, as if they were separate words, to show gender, case, and number. However, the New Testament use of this common Greek word is very limited, and virtually confined to the nominative case and the neuter accusatives, singular and plural. Sometimes the indefinite particle div is also used with oo-Ttg to stress the indefinite element in its meaning. At times, however, ooTtg is used without any real difference in meaning from the simple form, og. 
7.16 In classical Greek, 't.epog meant "another of a different kind", whereas eiaog meant "another of the same kind". Something of this distinction can be found at times in New Testament Greek, but it is not strictly observed. 
89 


90 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
7.2 CORRESPONDING ADVERBS 
7.21 Just as Greek had a system of corresponding adjectives/pronouns, so also it had a system of corresponding adverbs. This system had been more complete in classical times, but some of the parts had fallen out of colloquial use in Hellenistic Greek (much as our English patterns "where, whence, whither", "there, thence, thither" and "here, hence, hither" have contracted down to just "where", "there" and "here" and the other forms, if used at all, have a somewhat archaic flavour). 
7.22 In particular there is less use of the indefinite forms (which are enclitic — that is, they throw their accent on the word preceding them: see #E6.3). 
7.23 The corresponding adverbs are: 

<table>
 <tr><th>TYPE</th><th>INTERROGATIVE</th><th>INDEFINITE</th><th>DEMONSTRATIVE</th><th>RELATIVE</th></tr>
 <tr><th>Time</th><td>πότε; when?</td><td>ποτέ at some time</td><td>τότε then</td><td>ὅτε when ὁπότε when</td></tr>
 <tr><th>Place</th><td>ποῦ where?</td><td>πού somewhere</td><td>ἐκεῖ there ἐνθάδε here</td><td>οὗ; where ὅπου where</td></tr>
 <tr><th>Source</th><td>πόθεν; whence?</td><td>ποθέν from some place</td><td>ἐκεῖθεν thence ἔνθεν from here ἐντεῦθεν from here</td><td>ὅθεν from where, whence (ὁπόθεν) from where</td></tr>
 <tr><th>Manner</th><td>πῶς; how?</td><td>πώς somehow</td><td>οὕτως thus, in this way</td><td>ὡς as, in which way ὅπως in order that</td></tr>
 <tr><th>Frequency</th><td>ποσάκις; how often?</td><td>-</td><td>πολλάκις often, frequently</td><td>ὁσάκις whenever, as often as</td></tr>
</table>

7.24 NOTE that for both corresponding adjectives/pronouns and corresponding adverbs, the interrogative and indefinite forms are spelt the same, but differ in accent. In two-syllable words the interrogative form has the accent on the first syllable and the indefinite form has it on the second syllable, and on monosyllables the interrogative form has a stronger accent than the indefinite form (compare Tic I Tic; rocroglzocog, rofoghrotog, 7rdzehro-re; Irof)/Tw'o; Kot9EvbroOev; Ka5chrojc). 
7.3 FORMATION OF ADVERBS: THE REGULAR PATTERN 
7.31 Most of the common adverbs of the New Testament are the same in form as the corresponding adjective in the genitive plural, but with -ς instead of -ν. 

<table>
 <tr><td>7.32</td><th>Adjective</th><th>Its Genitive Plural</th><th>Adverb</th></tr>
 <tr><td></td>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><td>ἀληθής</td><td>true</td></tr>
 <tr><td>δίκαιος</td><td>righteous, just</td></tr>
 <tr><td>κακός</td><td>bad</td></tr>
 <tr><td>καλός</td><td>good</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ὅμοιος</td><td>like</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><td>ἀληθῶν</td></tr>
 <tr><td>δικαίων</td></tr>
 <tr><td>κακῶν</td></tr>
 <tr><td>καλῶν</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ὁμοίων</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td>
 <td>
 <table>
 <tr><td>ἀληθῶς</td><td>truly</td></tr>
 <tr><td>δικαίως</td><td>justly</td></tr>
 <tr><td>κακῶς</td><td>badly</td></tr>
 <tr><td>καλῶς</td><td>well</td></tr>
 <tr><td>ὁμοίως</td><td>similarly</td></tr>
 </table>
 </td></tr>
</table>



7.33 But also note these forms: 
oi5-rog 7rpoyrog elCEIVOg eic/e
this first that out of (preposition)

can 005v 61Kaicov K a lc cav ica2,6 v oiwicov
ZO'Orcov irpoircov eiceivaw
dariedig 8iKaiwg icalcci) Kea*. opoiwg ofircog n-po5rov eICEI Ct)

thus firstly there outside


SEVEN: ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS; SECOND AND THIRD CONJUGATIONS 91 
7.4 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 
7.41 The standard or basic form of an adjective or adverb is referred to as the positive degree. There are two other forms which it can have: it can be used in the comparative degree (strictly speaking, comparison of two instances or examples), and the superlative degree (strictly speaking, used of an instance or example that exceeds two or more others). These correspond with the sequence great, greater, greatest; short, shorter, shortest in English, where the comparative and superlative forms are made by the addition of the suffixes -er and -est. For some English words, however, a change in the word is made: as for example in the comparisons good, better, best; bad, orse, worst; little, less, least. 
7.42 There are the same two types of comparatives and superlatives in Greek: those formed by adding a suffix to the positive stem (the more common), and those formed by a change in the form the word itself. 
7.43 The comparative suffix is -repo; and the superlative suffix is -z-otroc. If the second-last owel of the word is short, then the last vowel will become long in the comparative and superlative stem, before the ending. Thus:thin-IA.6c,-, -OtifriAoTEpog, ifAirriAot-aToc,- high, higher, highest coOdc, coOdn-epoc, co0corara; wise, wiser, wisest 
7.44 The forms in --'Epos decline like dm; and the forms in -1-cerog- decline like Ka)* (see Appendix D, #D4.1 and D4.2). 
7.45 These are the adjectives which use different word forms (those in brackets are not found in :he New Testament): Positive Comparative Superlative ccraeog. good Kpeico-wy better kpartatOc most excellent (f3e;tTICOV) better (6a/r1070c) best ak-og- bad xEipcov worse 99 
ijo-o-coy worse, less ,__ E;l ac great pei cow greater ithytcrToc greatest , ,_.zkpoc little pticpo'repo; less — kAdeccow less kAaxicroc least 5, ,70;61; much, many n-Aeicoy more KAefaroc most &TxaTog. last Comparatives in -coy decline like dOpow (see Appendix D, #D4.8).
7.46 The comparative of an adverb is the neuter singular of the corresponding comparative acljec-:\ e. The superlative of an adverb is the neuter plural of the corresponding superlative adjective. 
7.47 These are the adverbs which use different forms in the comparative and superlative degrees :hose in brackets are not found in the New Testament): Positive Comparative Superlative 6; near eyytj'repov nearer Eyyi6Ta nearest ic c7-0 well /30L-ctov very well ([30,2tara) 99 'we-lc-coy better - (5-0)(,- gladly (fiotoy) fiSia-ca most gladly e k-a ico5g- badly ri Quo v worse, less (ijk-to-Ta) ,:u;o5g- well icdcA2L. to v better ( IcocA,)„ tam) LIckAa) peolitoy more paA t o-Ta most of all 7E pay across 7repal-cepo) further — -7..o).-6 much 7adov more (7aeio-Ta) 7cczewc quickly Taztov more quickly raztara most quickly 

92 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
7.48 A comparative may be followed by (a) a genitive of comparison (discussed in #9.44(e); examples, Selections L5/B15; L9/B12); or (b) by "than", in which instance the things being compared will have the same case. For example: 
John 4:1: 'I7r7o-of)c rAziovac 'Jaen-rag- Irotel Kai f3aIrricet 7coavvric Jesus is making and is baptizing more disciples than John
7.49 The superlative forms of adjective and adverb are rarely used in the New Testament, and when they do occur they are more likely to have what is called an "elative" sense (that is, they mean "very" or something similar), than they are to have a strict superlative sense. Often, when the superlative is meant, the comparative form is used; and on frequent occasions when a comparative meaning is intended, the positive form is used. For example: Mark 9:45: icca6v eaTIV CE eio-e2Beiv eig Trl v co* xwAav rj ... t better it is for you to enter into life lame than ... etc. t KTA. is the abbreviation for Kai to Aotird, = "and the rest", equivalent to English "etc." Mark 14:21 (L9/B16): icoaav afnip el, am eyevvrjeri 6 avepcogoc eiceivog. better for him if were not born that man. 
Clearly in these sentences Koa6v has the comparative sense, "better", rather than "good", so that these sentences do not mean, "It is good for you to enter into life lame than ... (etc.)", or "It would be good for that man if he had not been born." It is wise to bear this type of usage in mind when translating. However, on most occasions when the positive degree of an adjective is used it does not have comparative meaning, and we must be careful not to read it in. Thus: Mark 9:5 (L7/B24): Ka2,6v &my di6E ervat It is good for us to be here [not, It is better ...] 
7.5 ATTRIBUTIVE AND PREDICATIVE USE OF ADJECTIVES 
7.51 ATTRIBUTIVE USE OF ADJECTIVES: Where an adjective is used with an article and noun (that is, identifying the noun by reference to an attribute of that noun), the adjective goes either 
(a) between the article and noun, or 
(b) after the noun, with the article repeated before the adjective. These are the two forms of what is called the attributive use of the adjective, and these two positions can be described respectively as the Attributive Intermediate Position (that is, between article and noun) and the Attributive Post Position (that is, immediately after the noun, with only the repeated article between them). Some examples from the Selections for this Lesson: 
(a) Attributive Intermediate Position
Matthew 27:53 (L7/B1): Eicrf/Abov eic vjv ayiav 71-62,tv. they entered into the holy city. 
A phrase describing the noun (an adjectival phrase) can be put into the attributive intermediate position. For example, ev Aao8ticeice ("in Laodicea") in: Revelation 3:14 (L7/B2). Kai TO c'qye2v zis ev AaoSticeia hoc/Ilia-1a; And to the messenger of the church in Laodicea 

SEVEN: ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS; SECOND AND THIRD CONJUGATIONS 93 
b) Attributive Post Position Revelation 21:2 (L7/B3): Tfiv ayiav Er6ov I saw the holy city Some grammarians hold the view that the attributive post use of the adjective is more emphatic than the attributive intermediate position; but this is not agreed by others.) 
If more than one adjective is being used referring to the same noun, the repeated article is only used once in front of both adjectives: Revelation 3:14 (L7/132): 6 ,tiapTvg. 6 Teta-Tog rcai dariOtvog the faithful and true witness 
7.52 Notice that in both these forms of the attributive position, the adjective has the article immediately in front of it. NOTE: the possessive adjectives kyóg, "my", and oxig, "your" singular), take the article in the same way as any other adjective. (For examples, see L2/B25 and L3/B28 for the Attributive Intermediate Position, and L5/B10 for the Attributive Post Position.) An entire adjectival phrase can be used in this way as if it were an adjective, and the article will be used in front of it (see the discussion of this in #2.97 and an example L2/B5). 7.53 PREDICATIVE USE OF ADJECTIVES: By contrast, an adjective can be used as the complement of the verb "to be", that is, as the "completement" of the thought. Here, the adjective Is the predicate, and it is placed in the predicative position, which may be either prior to the article and noun (the Predicative Prior Position), or after the article and noun (the Predicative Post Position). Notice that it can never come between the article and its noun, or in any circumstances have the article immediately in front of it. Examples of the two forms of the Predicative Position from the Selections in these Lessons: 
e) Predicative Prior Position (with eigi) Hebrews 11:38 (L7/B4): c5v anc iv OD; 6 woo-yog of whom the world was not worthy Revelation 5:12 (L5/B19): gtov eativ To apviov To ecoaypevov worthy is the lamb that has been slain 
d) Predicative Post Position (with eiyi) 1 Corinthians 3:17 (L7/B5): 6 yap vans Tof) Oeoij dytog eaTtv for the temple of God is holy 
7.54 As the position of the words is an adequate indication of meaning, the verb "to be" is not 7-2-ally necessary, and so it is often omitted: e) Predicative Prior Position (without Luke 1:49 (L7/B6): Kai dytov TO 5voila ()dna and holy is his name Luke 10:7 (L7/A5): 6%tog 6 epyarrig Tor) ,uto-Oof) &nor) 1 Timothy 5:18 (L7/B7): worthy is the workman of his pay 
(1) Predicative Post Position (without eigi) Romans 7:12 (L7/B8): COOTE 6 kiev vo,uog dytog, 711 kvToAn ayia so the law is holy and the commandment is holy 
94 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
7.55 Where Knowing Greek Makes a Difference: One of the advantages of learning Greek is being able to examine New Testament passages, and compare the wording of different verses. The examples given above – from the Sentences at the end of this Lesson – include two verses which it is interesting to compare. The Scripture of 1 Timothy 5:18 (L7/B7) says, "The Scripture says, 'You shall not muzzle an ox while it is treading out the grain,' and, 'The laborer deserves to be paid.— (NRSV.) The first of the two quotations of what "the Scripture says" comes from Deuteronomy 25:4. And you can see that the second (L7/A5) is an exact word-for-word quotation of Luke 10:7. That is, one part of the New Testament gives an exact quote of another part of the New Testament, and calls it "Scripture". Now that, as I said, is a very interesting thing, if you think about it. 
7.56 The two uses, attributive and predicative, without the verb "to be", can be clearly seen in the following example, which is unambiguous: Revelation 20:5 (L7/B9): avaaramc T1 rpojTri this is the first resurrection 
7.57 Note the distinction between the two positions (that is, in the relationships of article and adjective): (a) In the attributive positions, the adjective is always immediately preceded by the article. 
(b) In the predicative positions, the adjective is never immediately preceded by the article. The meaning is thus always indicated quite clearly. 
7.58 There are however some sentences where the article is not used with adjective and noun. In these instances therefore there could be a potential ambiguity. However, usually the context makes the meaning plain. John 6:9 (L7/B10): Tarn/ gott6aprov cii6e bc 2(£1. 7rEVTE difyrovc Kpteivovc There is a lad here who has five barley loaves 
7.59 There are five common words which always take the predicative position (that is, they do not ever have the article immediately preceding them) but which nonetheless have the usual adjectival sense and do not necessarily imply the verb "to be". These are: oZToc ("this"), kiceivoc ("that"), o)Loc ("whole, complete, entire"), rag. ("all"), and dizac (alternative form of Iraq). Examples of their use: 
(a) In the Predicative Prior Position John 12:34 (L3/B1): ko-rtv aroc 6 viol Tof) aveparov; who is this son of man? 
Mark 12:30 (L5/B15): Kap6iac Gov (K-0,) out of your whole heart (etc.) Matthew 16:18 (L5/B18): eic i naves Trj 7thrpa obco8o,urjo-o) upon this rock I will build ... Matthew 28:19 (L6/B3): zavTa Tee all the nations ...
(b) In the Predicative Post Position Mark 10:5 (L5/B16): evT&Mv TonjTriv .. this commandment
Matthew 3:9 (L5/1317): ... klc nOiv AiBcov TatjToyv .. out of these stones

SEVEN: ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS; SECOND AND THIRD CONJUGATIONS 95 
7.6 SUPPLETIVES, AND OTHER VERBS OF THE SECOND AORIST 
7.61 A number of Greek verbs are incomplete, in that they cannot be used in all tenses, because in ome tenses the expected forms do not exist. These verbs are referred to as "defective" in those :mses. What happens in such cases is that forms from some quite different verbs fill the gaps. 
7.62 We have defective verbs in English, and we also fill the gaps from other verbs in a similar ay. Consider the following: "See how God has answered prayer in the past, and believe that he ill answer prayer in the future also; see what wonders God has wrought in the past, and believe :hat he will wonders in the future also." What is the future tense of "wrought" needed to fill :he gap? There is no such future tense in use, so we have to borrow from another verb, perhaps -do", or "work" or "perform". Similarly, what are the infinitives of "can" and "will"? We have to arrow from other verbs and say, "to be able to" and "to intend to" or "to be about to". English has -:ormed the tense system of some verbs from different roots: e.g., "go" is defective (it is not ,:ceptable to say "he goed"), and has taken as its past tense "went", which is actually the past tense :f the verb "wend". 
7.63 Verbs which join together forms from different roots in this way are called suppletives. There seven suppletives used in the New Testament: 
Meaning Present Active
take/choose come eat say/speak • see run
- carry/bring
aipeco pzoi.t at koVico t opdcw zpexo) OePw
Future Aorist Active Active f eA,eco eaov aiprj (royal eaa kA,E1)aoyal 112,61ov Odeyoitat q)ayov Epees EllrOV digoitat eh5ov 6pageop at) Spa,uov {r)veyK'ov} n'vEyica
Perfect Perfect Active MiddlPassive
airjA,v Oa
eiprjica tkcopawa (6e8p ditri Ica) Ev1j voxa
- \ote the rough breathing on these three forms: this is explained in #C8.73.
?1p at
eipri gat t(ectjpayat) (8e8p akin az) (kvilvEndaz)
Aorist Passive rj peerj v eppeOriv co(periv r)It(07-7v
7.64 In the New Testament both A,eyco and Orl,ui occur only in the present and imperfect, and On yi found only in these four forms: Present, 077 jai, "I say"; Ono-iv, "he says"; Oao- iv, "they say"; Imperfect, 47-7, "he said". (These four forms occur altogether 70 times in the New Testament, EOrj --,nrig by far the most common.) The gap for both verbs for other tenses is filled by Spew, ebrov, All these words, originally different verbs, have the same root meaning of "say/speak/tell", - are used to supplete each other. Similarly for the other suppletives. 
7.65 NOTE that all seven suppletives are Second Conjugation verbs (that is, they have second • rist forms, indicated by the -ov ending). Two verbs (aipeco and Oepco) are shown as having first • rist alternatives, and also throv and Et8ov can have forms in the New Testament with first aorist -dings (though without the -a- phoneme of the punctiliar morph; see #A3.28). In the New stament there are two alternative forms of the future used for aipeco and its compounds. 
7.66 For Second Conjugation verbs, their verb stem is their aorist stem, and (except for ayes and -,,o)) they add a durative morph to form their present stem. A fuller explanation of verb formation Ill be given in due course (#10.2), and all 34 Second Conjugation verbs which occur in the New - tament are listed in #C2. However, the 15 more frequent and more important of these should be ,ted now. The Principal Parts (see #10.3) for these are: 

96 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
Meaning Present Active lead ayw, sin auaptrawo throw f3a2.,Aco become yivoyat find EievialCCO have Exw die (daro)evrjakco take A.a,u)gava) leave Azigo) learn gaveavw suffer ircio-xco drink rives fall gim-co bear 211(11,0 flee 0a5yco
Future Active go) et,uap271(70) PaA,eco yevticopat ef)prio-o) -rco -19aveopat AMIligo,uat AE1111C0 ,uaerjo-o,uat gio,uat geaeopat Te0,Liat 0Eigogat
Aorist Perfect Active Active fiyayov (ixa) fipaptrov r'bucip-critca fficaov 02,771ca ey,evopriv yeyova evpov5pritca kxov eaxtitca -0avov Teevritca 0..a[3ov EUrNa avrov (A0,oura) ,uarSoov gegeo9ritca braeov gegovea 71.tov gerama IrEo-ov Irbrccoica -ZEICOV (2 e20X0) Ovyov geOevya
t Note the rough breathing on this form: this is explained in #E2.85.
Perfect Midd✓Passive n'ypat (reiktapvi,uat) 16ef32,1-7,uat yEyevriliat (efipn,uat)
eUrip,uat 2,0,Et,uktat (zerquat) (Te'rEyllat)
Aorist Passive fixer-iv (iiitaprilOriv) 462,40riv kyEvt-jOriv ei5peetiv
e2.4,u0Oriv OLeixperiv

The preposition ago is usually prefixed to Ovijo-icco. For the other words listed, a form in brackets is one which does not occur in the New Testament but is worthy of note. 
7.67 NOTE that where the stem of a word ends in a labial, the -K.- of the perfect active morph combines with this labial and gives -0- (as in eari0a), and similarly this - K- combines with a palatal at the end of the stem to give -x- (as in iza). Some perfects take the -a- ending direct, without the - K- phoneme — see #7.8, below. 
7.68 These patterns are not given for learning, but for you to look through so that you begin to become familiar with the kinds of changes that occur in a word. (When you encounter one of these forms, your Grammatical Analysis will remind you of the lexical form of that word.) 
7.69 Once the first person singular of a flexion (the flexion form) is known, the remaining forms of that flexion will all conjugate regularly, on the pattern of ),15w. 
7.7 THE THIRD AORIST, AND THE THIRD CONJUGATION 
7.71 THE FIRST AND SECOND AORISTS: So far we have met two ways of forming and conjugating the aorist active — adding the punctiliar morph -o-a-, and then conjugating as for co (#4.21) and, secondly, adding the neutral morph -E/o- and conjugating as for Ocaov (#3.81). 
7.72 THIRD AORIST ACTIVE: There is also a third aorist active pattern of conjugation, without any difference in meaning (#3.65). This pattern is followed by a small but important group of verbs: they add a third set of endings (slightly different from the other two) directly to the verb root, lengthening the final vowel of the root if it is short. Note that in this paradigm the 3rd person singular pronoun ending is 0 (zero), and that it is in fact the absence of any other ending that is what is significant for indicating the person and number of this form. 

SEVEN: ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS; SECOND AND THIRD CONJUGATIONS 97 
7.73 Lexical form: iarript (stand) -salvo) (go) ytv6o-tao (know) 8thico (sink) Root: am- -/3a- yvo- 8v-AORIST ACTIVE: Ending SINGULAR 1 -v &Tv-iv -437-iv yticov 8vv 2 -g 61-7-15 -0775 e,,YvwC 8vc-3 0 Aarri -On eyvw Mu PLURAL 1 -,LIEV &YTTIIIEV -Oripev Lyvcouev E6v,uev 2 -Te 6arritE -On TE eyvCOTE Mvt-E 3 -aav so--rrio-av -Orio-av yvcoaav Mvo-av 
o-Truit is one of the most complex of New Testament verbs, with one set of tenses having :ransitive meaning, "to cause [something] to stand", and another set of its tenses having intran-,itive meaning, "to take a stand". Fuller details are given in #C3.87.) 
7.74 THIRD AORIST MIDDLE: Most third aorist verbs do not use forms in the Middle Voice. Those that do take the same pronoun endings as the first aorist (2a5co) forms, but once again they _-1,1d them directly to the verb root. Thus kee,unv (from Tierhut), Moyriv (from &Scow). (For the 111 flexion, see #C6.) 
7.75 THIRD AORIST PASSIVE: In the Passive Voice third aorist verbs add the passive morph (which lengthens to -On-) directly to their root and then again take the same Third Con-ization endings as given above for the active (#7.73). It is to be noted that A:tjco (and all First and and Conjugation verbs) follow the Third Conjugation pattern in the passive (compare the of )ajco, #6.50, with the following Table). That is to say, all verbs are Third Conjugation n the Aorist Passive. 
NORIST PASSIVE: S1 karderiv -43deriv t eyvcoo-Oriv t-e(51/yr)v 2 karaOrig -06977c kyvcoo-Oric -e815rig 3 kal-den -06077 kyvcoo-Ori -e6i'yri P1 karderwev -060ruiEv kyvojaerywv -e8ijr-buev 2 kaTathirE -060ril-E eyv666riTE -kOtjriTE 3 kardcOncrav -066ncrav eyvojo-Oriaav -kotjrio-av
this flexion (and in the perfect middle/passive and the future passive) the lexal -rico- has the allomorph form =C8.91). is a direct flexion passive without -9- (see #7.8).
THIRD CONJUGATION: The third aorist is thus a third way of conjugating the aorist, It is. a Third Conjugation. Third Conjugation verbs form their present stem, like the Second by adding a durative morph to their verb stem. But -f3aivco, ytvcoo-Kco and 56vco have taken the First Conjugation ending -co, and they conjugate their present tense on a First --i'uzation pattern. However, verbs ending in -,ut (like io-7/11) follow a distinctive (that is to say, 7d Conjugation) pattern of conjugating their present and imperfect tenses.
- -7 THIRD CONJUGATION PRESENT: This conjugation (shown here for five representative -_ -..rbs) is:

98 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 

<table>
 <tr><th>Root:</th><td></td><td>στα- (stand)</td><td>δυνα- (can)</td><td>θε- (place)</td><td>δο- (give)</td><td>δεικ- (show)</td></tr>
 <tr><th>PRESENT ACTIVE</th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><th>SINGULAR</th><td>1</td><td>ἵστημι</td><td>(none -</td><td>τίθημι</td><td>δίδωμι</td><td>δείκνυμι</td></tr>
 <tr><th></th><td>2</td><td></td><td>deponent</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><th></th><td>3</td><td>ἵστησι(ν)</td><td>verb)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><th>PLURAL</th><td>1</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><th></th><td>2</td><td>ἵστατε</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><th></th><td>3</td><td>ἱστᾶσι(ν)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><th>PRESENT MIDDLE</th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><th>SINGULAR</th><td>1</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><th></th><td>2</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><th></th><td>3</td><td>ἵσταται</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><th>PLURAL</th><td>1</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><th></th><td>2</td><td>ἵστασθε</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><th></th><td>3</td><td>ἵστανται</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><th>IMPERFECT ACTIVE</th><td></td><td></td><td>-</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><th>IMPERFECT MIDDLE</th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
</table>

7.78 NOTE: (a) The pronoun endings of the Third Conjugation Present Middle are the same as those taken by the perfect of First Conjugation verbs (see λέλυμαι, #6.25), and the endings of the Third Conjugation Imperfect Middle are the same as those taken by the pluperfect of First Conjugation verbs (see #C1.12); (b) The Third Conjugation Imperfect Active takes the same endings as the Third Aorist Active (#7.73); (c) The Imperfect flexions are set out in full in #C6.3; (d) δύναμαι is deponent; its imperfect (usually ἐδυνάμην, but occurring seven times as ἠδυνάμην, with double augment — see #4.62), follows ἱστάμην; (e) Three other important Third Conjugation deponents are κάθημαι "I sit down", κεῖμαι "I lie down", and -ἵημι, "I send" (which conjugates like τίθημι, but only occurs in the New Testament in compounds, notably ἀφίημι); (f) For the present and imperfect passive: use middle forms (#6.50, #6.51). 
7.79 Many of the forms in the above flexions are never actually found in the New Testament, but are included to show clearly the pattern of conjugating. A fuller explanation of verb formation will be given in due course (#10.2), and all 36 Third Conjugation verbs which occur in the New Testament are listed in #C3. 
7.8 DIRECT FLEXIONS 
7.81 Some Greek verbs form one of their tenses without the use of the usual consonant in the aspect or voice morph. Two verbs form their future (deponent) without a future morph: φάγομαι (from ἐσθίω "I eat" — see #7.63); πίομαι (from πίνω "I drink" — see #C4.2). Nine verbs form their perfect active without either aspirating the stem consonant or adding -κ-, as the case may be; for example, γέγονα, from γίνομαι "I become" (see #C4.3 for the full list). Thirty verbs can form their aorist passive without taking the -θ- of the passive morph; for example, ἠγγέλην, not ἠγγέλθην, from ἀγγέλλω "I announce" (see #C4.4 for the full list). These flexions which add the next vowel directly to the lexal without the usual consonant of the morph can be termed "direct flexions". 
7.82 Among the direct flexions of the perfect, there is one which requires special comment: οἶδα, from the same root, ἰδ-, as εἶδον, "I saw". It is: 

SEVEN: ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS; SECOND AND THIRD CONJUGATIONS 99 

<table>
 <tr><td> </td><td> </td><th>Perfect</th><th>Pluperfect</th><th>Subjunctive</th><th>Imperative</th><th>Infinitive</th><th>Participle</th></tr>
 <tr><th>SINGULAR</th><th>1</th><td>οἶδα</td><td>ᾔδειν</td><td>εἰδῶ</td><td> </td><td>εἰδέναι</td><td><table><tr><td>m.</td><td>εἰδώς</td></tr></table></td></tr>
 <tr><th> </th><th>2</th><td>οἶδας</td><td>ᾔδεις</td><td>εἰδῇς</td><td>ἴσθι</td><td></td><td><table><tr><td>f.</td><td>εἰδυῖα</td></tr></table></td></tr>
 <tr><th> </th><th>3</th><td>οἶδε(ν)</td><td>ᾔδει</td><td>εἰδῇ</td><td>ἴστω</td><td></td><td><table><tr><td>n.</td><td>εἰδός</td></tr></table></td></tr>
 <tr><th>PLURAL</th><th>1</th><td>οἴδαμεν</td><td>ᾔδειμεν</td><td>εἰδῶμεν</td><td> </td><td></td><td><table><tr><td>g.</td><td>εἰδότος</td></tr></table></td></tr>
 <tr><th> </th><th>2</th><td>οἴδατε</td><td>ᾔδειτε</td><td>εἰδῆτε</td><td>ἴστε</td><td></td><td> </td></tr>
 <tr><th> </th><th>3</th><td>οἴδασι(ν)</td><td>ᾔδεισαν</td><td>εἰδῶσι(ν)</td><td>ἴστωσαν</td><td></td><td> </td></tr>
</table>

This perfect form has the present meaning, "I know", etc., and the pluperfect is the past tense, "I knew". 
7.83 Notice the second-last morph in the pluperfect flexion, -ει-. This identifies the form as pluperfect. Thus it is a specifier morph, and occupies Slot 8 of a verb's nine morph slots. NOTE that on to this specifier morph the pluperfect adds the endings (Slot 9) of the third aorist #7.73). 
7.84 Because the specifier morph -ει- identifies the pluperfect in an unambiguous way, some riters of koinē Greek considered an initial augment unnecessary for the pluperfect tense, and i\mitted it for many words in the pluperfect. 
7.85 A similar situation exists for another word: εἴωθα (which is as rare as οἶδα is common) is so a perfect form that has present meaning, "I am accustomed", and comes from an original present form (ἔθω) that has been obsolete since Homer's time. Again like οἶδα, it has a pluperfect form εἰώθειν (which follows the paradigm of ᾔδειν) that has simple past meaning, "I was accustomed". The neuter perfect participle εἰωθός occurs with the meaning "custom" (compare perfect participle εἰδώς from οἶδα). 
7.86 For the paradigm of λύω, showing the regular pluperfect flexion with the perfective active morph -κ-, see #C1.11. 
ASSIGNMENTS ON LESSON SEVEN 
1. PARADIGMS FOR LEARNING: The paradigms to be learnt by heart this Lesson are: 
    18. Third Conjugation Aorist Active (#7.73): ἔστην (from ἵστημι), and ἔγνων (from γινώσκω) 
    19. Third Conjugation Present Active (#7.77): ἵστημι and δίδωμι 
    20. Third Conjugation Present Middle (#7.77): ἵσταμαι and δίδομαι 
2(a) LEARNING THE OTHER MAJOR PARADIGMS OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION: Aim to understand how the other flexions of the Third Conjugation are formed: NOTE how the Third Conjugation Aorist Middle is formed by adding the regular aorist middle endings (as for λύω) to the verb root, while the Third Conjugation Aorist Passive flexion is formed from the verb root by adding the passive morph and then the third aorist endings.
(b) LEARN which are the seven verbs which are suppletives (#7.63), and NOTE the suppletive forms which are used in their other tenses: these are used in the Sentences (below). 
3. WORKBOOK: ANSWER THE QUESTIONS in your Workbook about this Lesson. 

100 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
4. TRANSLATION EXERCISES A AND B: Do the English into Greek exercises, and then read and translate literally all the Selections from the Greek New Testament. Make sure that you continue the pattern of reading each Selection aloud before translating it, to help cultivate your "feel" for the Greek. NOTE: To do this work you will need to use the paradigms set for learning this Lesson, together with the paradigms and vocabulary of the previous Lessons. The new prepositions given below, and the cases they take, should be carefully noted. Most of the Selections introduce new vocabulary which is then used again in the Selections which follow. LEARN each unknown word as you use it. 
5. VOCABULARY CARDS: Continue the practice of writing out Vocabulary Cards for the new words introduced in this Lesson, putting 7 (for "Lesson 7") in the top lefthand corner of each side of the Card. Make out the card for each new word as you come to it in the Sentences below; some will appear in several of this Lesson's Sentences. When you are given a word form and what it comes from, put the word it comes from at the top of your Card, and the information about that word form lower on the Card. Add these Cards to your collection, and place them all in alphabetical order. When additional information is provided about a word which you have had in a previous Lesson, add that information to your existing Vocabulary Card for that word. (Don't forget to put on your Card the case(s) taken by each preposition.) 
6. ABBREVIATIONS IN THE NOTES (BELOW): see page 12. 
PREPOSITIONS

<table>
 <tr><td>*σύν</td><td>(+dat)</td><td>with, together with</td><td>   </td><td>χωρίς</td><td>(+gen)</td><td>without, apart from</td></tr>
</table>


A. TRANSLATION FROM ENGLISH INTO GREEK 
(This may be done as an exercise in class at the end of the Lesson, or set as an assignment.) 

<table>
 <tr><td></td><th>SENTENCES</th><th>NOTES AND NEW WORDS</th></tr>
 <tr><td>A1.</td><td>"I do not know this man." (MARK 14:71)</td><td>Use *οἶδα, "I know" (#7.82)</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A2.</td><td>It has been written, "You (plural) shall be holy, because I (emphatic) [am] holy. (1 PETER 1:16)</td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><td>A3.</td><td>Night is coming, when no-one is able to work.</td><td>I am able: *δύναμαι; (JOHN 9:4) work: ἐργάζομαι (dep.)</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A4.</td><td>Do you not know that you are God's temple and the Spirit of God dwells in you? (1 CORINTHIANS 3:16)</td><td>temple: ναός, -οῦ, ὁ; dwell: οἰκέω</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A5.</td><td>The workman [is] worthy of his pay. (LUKE 10:7)</td><td>workman: ἐργάτης, -ου, ὁ; pay: μισθός, -ου, ὁ </td></tr>
 <tr><td>A6.</td><td>I wrote these things to you in order that you might know that you have eternal life. (1 JOHN 5:13)</td><td>in order that: *ἵνα (+ subjv); might know: see #7.82</td></tr>
 <tr><td>A7.</td><td>I have not come to call righteous ones but sinners into repentance. (LUKE 5:32)</td><td>righteous: *δίκαιος, -αία, -ον; sinner, sinful: ἁμαρτωλός, -όν</td></tr>
</table>


SEVEN: ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS; SECOND AND THIRD CONJUGATIONS 101 
B. SELECTIONS FROM THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
A superscript number (as in aor²) is used to indicate a Second or Third Conjugation verb (as the case may be). 

<table>
 <tr><td></td><th>SELECTION</th><th>NOTES AND NEW WORDS</th></tr>
 <tr><td>B1.</td><td>καὶ ... εἰσῆλθον εἰς τὴν ἁγίαν πόλιν, καὶ ἐνεφανίσθησαν πολλοῖς. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 27:53)</td><td>ἐν-ε-φανίσ-θη-σαν: 3pl aor. pass. from ἐμφανίζω, cause to appear clearly, make known, (pass.: appear)</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B2.</td><td>Καὶ τῷ ἀγγέλῳ τῆς ἐν Λαοδικείᾳ ἐκκλησίας γράψον, Τάδε λέγει ὁ Ἀμήν, ὁ μάρτυς ὁ πιστὸς καὶ ἀληθινός, ἡ ἀρχὴ τῆς κτίσεως τοῦ θεοῦ· Οἶδά σου τὰ ἔργα. (ΑΠΟΚΑΛΥΨΙΣ ΙΩΑΝΝΟΥ 3:14-15)</td><td>Λαοδίκεια, -ας, Laodicea; *ἐκκλησία, ἡ: church; τάδε: #7.14; *ἀμήν: amen; ὁ Ἀμήν: the one who is true; μάρτυς, -υρος, ὁ: witness, martyr; *ἀρχή, ruler, beginning (both meanings apply here); *οἶδα: know, #7.82</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B3.</td><td>Καὶ τὴν πόλιν τὴν ἁγίαν, Ἱερουσαλὴμ καινήν, εἶδον καταβαίνουσαν ἐκ τοῦ οὐρανοῦ ἀπὸ τοῦ θεοῦ, ἡτοιμασμένην ὡς νύμφην κεκοσμημένην τῷ ἀνδρὶ αὐτῆς. (ΑΠΟΚΑΛΥΨΙΣ ΙΩΑΝΝΟΥ 21:2)</td><td>Ἰερουσαλήμ, ἡ (indecl.): Jerusalem; καινός -ή -όν: new; *εἶδον: #7.63; *καταβαίνω: come down (acc. sg fem. ptc, agreeing with πόλις); ἡτοιμασμένην: having been prepared (perf ptc); νύμφη, -ης, ἡ: bride; κεκοσμημένην: having been adorned (acc sg fern pf ptc); *ἀνήρ, ἀνδρός, ὁ: husband, man (see #5.44)</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B4.</td><td>ὧν οὐκ ἦν ἄξιος ὁ κόσμος (ΠΡΟΣ ΕΒΡΑΙΟΥΣ 11:38)</td><td></td></tr>
 <tr><td>B5.</td><td>ὁ γὰρ ναὸς τοῦ θεοῦ ἅγιός ἐστιν, οἵτινές ἐστε ὑμεῖς. (ΠΡΟΣ ΚΟΡΙΝΘΙΟΥΣ Α, 3:17)</td><td>οἵτινες: #7.15; see #D6.1 and #D6.6</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B6.</td><td>Ὅτι ἐποίησέν μοι μεγαλεῖα ὁ δυνατός, καὶ ἅγιον τὸ ὄνομα αὐτοῦ. (ΚΑΤΑ ΛΟΥΚΑΝ 1:49)</td><td>μεγαλεῖα: #5.75; ὁ δυνατός: the Almighty; Absence of verb "to be": #7.54(e)</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B7.</td><td>Λέγει γὰρ ἡ γραφή, Βοῦν ἀλοῶντα οὐ φιμώσεις· καί, Ἄξιος ὁ ἐργάτης τοῦ μισθοῦ αὐτοῦ. (ΠΡΟΣ ΤΙΜΟΘΕΟΝ Α, 5:18)</td><td>*γραφή, -ῆς, ἡ: scripture; βοῦς, βοός, ὁ: ox, #5.20; ἀλοῶντα: masc. acc. sg ptc from ἀλοάω, thresh; φιμόω: muzzle</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B8.</td><td>ὁ μὲν νόμος ἅγιος, καὶ ἡ ἐντολὴ ἁγία καὶ δικαία καὶ ἀγαθή. Τὸ οὖν ἀγαθὸν ἐμοὶ γέγονεν θάνατος; (ΠΡΟΣ ΡΩΜΑΙΟΥΣ 7:12-13)</td><td>*ἐντολή, commandment, instruction; *ἀγαθός -ή -όν: good</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B9.</td><td>Καὶ οἱ λοιποὶ τῶν νεκρῶν οὐκ ἔζησαν ἄχρι τελεσθῇ τὰ χίλια ἔτη. Αὕτη ἡ ἀνάστασις ἡ πρώτη. Μακάριος καὶ ἅγιος ὁ ἔχων μέρος ἐν τῇ ἀναστάσει τῇ πρώτῃ· (ΑΠΟΚΑΛΥΨΙΣ ΙΩΑΝΝΟΥ 20:5-6)</td><td>*λοιπός -ή -όν: remainder, remaining, rest; *ζάω: live; ἄχρι: until; τελεσθῇ: 3sg aor. pass. subjv of τελέω, end, complete, finish; χίλιοι -αι -α: thousand; ἔτος, -ους, τό: year</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B10.</td><td>Ἔστιν παιδάριον ἓν ὧδε, ὃ ἔχει πέντε ἄρτους κριθίνους καὶ δύο ὀψάρια· ἀλλὰ ταῦτα τί ἐστιν εἰς τοσούτους; (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 6:9)</td><td>παιδάριον, -ου, τό: a lad, young boy; πέντε: five; κρίθινος, -η, -ον: barley, made of barley; ὀψάριον, -ου, τό: a (small) fish; τοσοῦτος, -αύτη, -οῦτο(ν): so much/ so many, #7.13</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B11.</td><td>Μακάριοι οἱ καθαροὶ τῇ καρδίᾳ· ὅτι αὐτοὶ τὸν θεὸν ὄψονται. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 5:8)</td><td>καθαρός: clean, pure; ὄψονται: #7.63</td></tr>
</table>

102 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 

<table>
 <tr><td>B12.</td><td>Καὶ λέγουσιν αὐτῷ οἱ μαθηταὶ αὐτοῦ, Πόθεν ἡμῖν ἐν ἐρημίᾳ ἄρτοι τοσοῦτοι, ὥστε χορτάσαι ὄχλον τοσοῦτον; (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 15:33)</td><td>τοσοῦτος #7.13; χορτάζω: feed, satisfy with food; *ὄχλος, -ου, ὁ: (a) crowd</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B13.</td><td>Ὅστις δὲ ὑψώσει ἑαυτόν, ταπεινωθήσεται· καὶ ὅστις ταπεινώσει ἑαυτόν, ὑψωθήσεται. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΘΘΑΙΟΝ 23:12)</td><td>*ὅστις: #7.15; ὑψόω: exalt; *ἑαυτόν: #6.93: ταπεινόω: humble</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B14.</td><td>Ἐγὼ ἐλήλυθα ἐν τῷ ὀνόματι τοῦ πατρός μου , καὶ οὐ λαμβάνετέ με · ἐὰν ἄλλος ἔλθῃ ἐν τῷ ὀνόματι τῷ ἰδίῳ , ἐκεῖνον λήψεσθε (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 5:43)</td><td>kA4AvOa: #7.63; 0,643: 3sg aor2 subjv of *rfriBov, were to come; *i8ioc, -a, -ov: one's own, his own; ev ovopaTt i(51(p: #7.51(b); A411111E69E: 2p1 fut. (#7.66) from *A.a,ufkivo), receive</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B15.</td><td>ἀλλὰ λέγει αὐτῷ, Ὕπαγε εἰς τὸν οἶκόν σου πρὸς τοὺς σούς, καὶ ἀνάγγειλον αὐτοῖς ὅσα σοι ὁ κύριος πεποίηκεν, καὶ ἠλέησέν σε. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΡΚΟΝ 5:19-20)</td><td>0-01');: from o-óc, -rj, -6v, L2/B25; with the article: the ones who are yours (i.e., your family and friends); durayyEtADv: impv aor' of c'urayyeaco, liquid verb (#4.57); am: #7.11, neut pl., how many things, i.e., all that ...; 3sg aor. from kAzaco, have mercy, compassion (note the significance of the aor. here and perf of Iroteo), both referring to the one act)</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B16.</td><td>Καὶ τοιαύταις παραβολαῖς πολλαῖς ἐλάλει αὐτοῖς τὸν λόγον, καθὼς ἠδύναντο ἀκούειν· χωρὶς δὲ παραβολῆς οὐκ ἐλάλει αὐτοῖς· κατ’ ἰδίαν δὲ τοῖς μαθηταῖς αὐτοῦ ἐπέλυεν πάντα. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΡΚΟΝ 4:33-34)</td><td>*Totof)w; rota6T77, Totarov. of such a kind, #7.13; *KapaPo2M, -fic, 4: parable; 7)81jvavro: 3pl impf dep. of the Third Conjugation *513valuat, #7.78, note the double augment (#4.62); dcutjetv: here: understand; Kat' i8lay: on their own, privately (from *i6iog); brt2,1")co: explain</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B17.</td><td>Καὶ συνάγονται οἱ ἀπόστολοι πρὸς τὸν Ἰησοῦν, καὶ ἀπήγγειλαν αὐτῷ πάντα, καὶ ὅσα ἐποίησαν καὶ ὅσα ἐδίδαξαν. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΡΚΟΝ 6:30)</td><td>*avvayco: gather together (mid/pass., come together, meet); *durouToZoc-, -ov, 6: apostle; oo-a: #7.11; k8164ay: 3p1 aor. of *St8(itax-co, teach</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B18.</td><td>Ἀλλὰ λέγω ὑμῖν ὅτι καὶ Ἠλίας ἐλήλυθεν, καὶ ἐποίησαν αὐτῷ ὅσα ἠθέλησαν, καθὼς γέγραπται ἐπ’ αὐτόν. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΡΚΟΝ 9:13)</td><td>kill-M.7)9El'; #7.63; oo-a: #7.11; fi9EADv: 3pl impf from *Oato, with double augment (#4.62); yeypaIrrat: 3sg pf pass. from *ypotOw (#6.25, #6.50, #10.45)</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B19.</td><td>Εἶπεν δὲ πρὸς τοὺς μαθητάς, Ἐλεύσονται ἡμέραι ὅτε ἐπιθυμήσετε μίαν τῶν ἡμερῶν τοῦ υἱοῦ τοῦ ἀνθρώπου ἰδεῖν, καὶ οὐκ ὄψεσθε. (ΚΑΤΑ ΛΟΥΚΑΝ 17:22)</td><td>Oi-eljo-ovrat: #7.63; hrteviieco: strongly desire, long (for); play: #5.76; 1(5Efy: aor2 inf. (#4.48, #7.63); 61yea9E: #7.63</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B20.</td><td>Καὶ ἐμαρτύρησεν Ἰωάννης λέγων ὅτι Τεθέαμαι τὸ πνεῦμα καταβαῖνον ὡς περιστερὰν ἐξ οὐρανοῦ, καὶ ἔμεινεν ἐπ’ αὐτόν. Κἀγὼ οὐκ ᾔδειν αὐτόν· ἀλλ’ ὁ πέμψας με βαπτίζειν ἐν ὕδατι, ἐκεῖνός μοι εἶπεν, Ἐφ’ ὃν ἂν ἴδῃς τὸ πνεῦμα καταβαῖνον καὶ μένον ἐπ’ αὐτόν, οὗτός ἐστιν ὁ βαπτίζων ἐν πνεύματι ἁγίῳ. Κἀγὼ ἑώρακα, καὶ μεμαρτύρηκα ὅτι οὗτός ἐστιν ὁ υἱὸς τοῦ θεοῦ. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 1:32-34)</td><td>*papTypeco: testify, bear witness; -reeleaRat: lsg pf of Oedeopat (dep.), look at, notice, observe (re reduplication, see #E4.33); 7repurrepet, ag, rj: dove, pigeon; 1.1E1VEV: 3sg aor of *pew°, rest, remain, abide; 756etv. #7.82; 6 ,reytifac-; masc. nom. sg ptc (meaning, the one who sent), from *7repirco, send; Yorig: 2sg aor2 subjv, from *th5ov (#7.63); kcopaKa: #7.63</td></tr>
</table>

SEVEN: ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS; SECOND AND THIRD CONJUGATIONS 103 

<table>
 <tr><td>B21.</td><td>Λέγει ἡ μήτηρ αὐτοῦ τοῖς διακόνοις, Ὅ τι ἂν λέγῃ ὑμῖν, ποιήσατε. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 2.5)</td><td>διάκονος, -ου, ὁ and ἡ: servant, deacon; ὅ τι: neut. from *ὅστις, #7.15</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B22.</td><td>Οἱ πατέρες ἡμῶν τὸ μάννα ἔφαγον ἐν τῇ ἐρήμῳ, καθώς ἐστιν γεγραμμένον, Ἄρτον ἐκ τοῦ οὐρανοῦ ἔδωκεν αὐτοῖς φαγεῖν. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 6:31)</td><td>μάννα, τό (indecl.): manna; ἔφαγον: #7.63; γεγραμμένον: pf middlpass. ptc from *γράφω; with ἐστιν: it stands written; ἔ-δω-κ-εν 3sg aor³ in -κα (#E4.77), from *δίδωμι, φαγεῖν: aor² inf., #7.63</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B23.</td><td>Ὅτι ἐγὼ ἐξ ἐμαυτοῦ οὐκ ἐλάλησα· ἀλλ’ ὁ πέμψας με πατήρ, αὐτός μοι ἐντολὴν ἔδωκεν, τί εἴπω καὶ τί λαλήσω. Καὶ οἶδα ὅτι ἡ ἐντολὴ αὐτοῦ ζωὴ αἰώνιός ἐστιν· ἃ οὖν λαλῶ ἐγώ, καθὼς εἴρηκέν μοι ὁ πατήρ, οὕτως λαλῶ. (ΚΑΤΑ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΝ 12:49-50)</td><td>ἐμαυτοῦ: #6.93; ὁ πέμψας: see L7/B20; ἔ-δω-κ-εν: 3sg aor³ of *δίδωμι; *οἶδα: #7.82; εἴρηκεν: #7.63</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B24.</td><td>Καὶ ὤφθη αὐτοῖς Ἠλίας σὺν Μωσῇ, καὶ ἦσαν συλλαλοῦντες τῷ Ἰησοῦ. Καὶ ἀποκριθεὶς ὁ Πέτρος λέγει τῷ Ἰησοῦ, Ῥαββί, καλόν ἐστιν ἡμᾶς ὧδε εἶναι· καὶ ποιήσωμεν σκηνὰς τρεῖς, σοὶ μίαν, καὶ Μωσῇ μίαν, καὶ Ἠλίᾳ μίαν. Οὐ γὰρ ᾔδει τί λαλήσει· ἦσαν γὰρ ἔκφοβοι. (ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΡΚΟΝ 9:4-6)</td><td>ὤφθη: #7.63 [pass. means, (he) appeared]; συλλαλέω: converse, speak together; ἀποκριθείς masc nom sg pass ptc of *ἀποκρίνομαι (dep.), answer, respond; ᾔδει: #7.82; ἀποκριθῇ: 3sg aor. pass subjv; ἔκφοβος -ον: frightened, terrified</td></tr>
</table>

SUPPLEMENTARY PASSAGES IN THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 

<table>
 <tr><td>B25. JOHN 4:39-45</td><td></td><td>Do the translation of this passage from your Greek New Testament as an exercise in class, using your Grammatical Analysis.</td></tr>
 <tr><td>B26. MATTHEW 18:3-5 B27. MARK 10:10-16 B28. JOHN 1:6-13</td><td style="width:3px; line-height: 105%;">⎧ ⎨ ⎩ </td><td>Translate these passages from your Greek New Testament, making the fullest use of your Grammatical Analysis.</td></tr>
</table>

If Time permits, read a Commentary on the Greek text of Selections B25—B28.

</div>

<div id="A0" class="Lesson">
 APPENDIX A 
A STUDENT'S GUIDE TO THE USE OF THIS BOOK 
AO. SOME GENERAL EXPLANATIONS AND COMMENTS 
A0.1 APPENDIX PURPOSE 
A0.11 This Appendix aims to provide additional material which may prove helpful for those who are studying on their own. Those who are part of a Greek class will also find it useful to have these further explanations and comments about some of the points being made in the main Lessons. 
A0.12 These additional comments relate to Lessons One to Six. The comments on each Lesson should be read in conjunction with that Lesson, and the indicated Grammar learnt. 
A0.13 In general, material of continuing reference value is given in the Lessons, whilst this Appendix contains additional explanatory material and comments which once noted will probably not need to be referred to again. 
A0.14 Because of individual differences between all of us, the rate at which you personally will progress, and your speed and understanding and retentivity, will be different from that of others. However, it will help you to attain the maximum of which you are capable in these areas if you note some positive and negative factors that will affect language learning. 
A0.15 Eugene Nida, in writing Learning A Foreign Language — A Handbook For Missionaries, begins on page 1 to analyse why missionaries find they have great difficulties in learning a language, and his comments will apply equally well to your learning New Testament Greek. He says: 
"There is no valid reason for tragic failure in language learning, for languages can be learned. Children of six years of age in all cultures are able to speak their mother-tongue intelligibly and to discuss many things which missionaries seem never able to talk about. Naturally, we may then ask ourselves, 'Why do we not learn a language as well as a child?' The reasons for our deficiencies are not difficult to discover. In the first place, as adult missionaries we have already acquired a set of language habits, and we have practised them for fully twenty years, until they have become thoroughly a part of us. In the second place, we shelter our ego with all types of inhibitions and restraints. We are afraid of exposing our ignorance and of being laughed at, and as a result our speech becomes ridiculous. Of course, it is also true that we do not have native parents who fondly try to teach us, who never seem to tire of repeating words, and who praise us for our feeble efforts. Furthermore, we are not exposed to the taunting of other children who cruelly force conformity upon their playmates. In reality, we do not have many of the advantages afforded children."
A0.16 F. L. Billows (The Techniques of Language Teaching, page 38) makes a comment on rather similar lines: "Opinionated, over-confident people have not the flexibility of mind to learn languages easily." The extent to which we can put aside our inhibitions and self-consciousness, and risk making ridiculous mistakes and take them in our stride, is the extent to which we will make good progress in language learning. 
A0.17 And Nida adds three other comments which are relevant: "On the other hand, we have other advantages which come from analytical training and mature mental faculties." (p.2.) "Lack of time is the most common reason for failure in language learning." (p.8.) "Some of the failure to learn a language results from the wrong approach." (p.9.) 
167

168 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
A0.18 From what Nida and Billows have said, one can draw the observation, regarding partici-pation and learning in class: "The smaller the pride, the greater the progress: I will learn lots of Greek from participation in class — unless my pride and dignity get in the way." A0.19 On page 26, Nida stresses that "Language learning means language using". We can see then that a second major principle in the learning of Greek is, in effect, "Use it, or lose it". 
A0.2 THE PHILOSOPHY OF "FRAMEWORK" LEARNING 
A0.21 The major problem for many students in a language Course like this is one of attitude and expectation. They expect to be able to memorize and master everything they are told the first time they are told it. This is the approach to learning which has been customary in other subjects they have studied, and so they come to Greek with the intention of mastering it in the same way. They believe this is what is expected of them. Then they find that the material is presented to them faster than they can absorb it, and that they are becoming overwhelmed by an avalanche of information which they cannot fully keep up with. 
A0.22 If you are able to assimilate thoroughly everything in the lessons as they are presented, this is excellent; but it is also exceptional. You are not expected to master all the contents of a Lesson when you go through it. 
A0.23 What is happening during this Stage One (Beginner's) Course is that you are being introduced swiftly and systematically to the entire range of Greek grammar that is needed for beginning to read and understand the New Testament. The more fundamental paradigms and constructions are set for learning; the rest are provided at this stage as information. What you are asked to do is to become aware of them without necessarily learning them (for example, to know that there is such a thing as the perfect tense without necessarily memorizing the whole flexion). Then, when these words and forms are encountered in New Testament sentences, you will begin to get practice in recognizing them, and your teacher (if you are a member of a class) will explain the forms and their use, in the contexts in which they are actually used in the New Testament — and you will be able to follow and to understand the explanation. 
A0.24 This does not mean that you are now being told not to try too hard to learn your work. Not at all. But it does mean that you are not being asked to do all your learning on your own account, by rote, in isolation from actual use situations: you are being asked to become aware of the total framework of work to be learnt, and then progressively to flesh out that skeleton with knowledge and understanding as you gain experience with actual sentences from the Greek New Testament. 
A0.25 Your learning acquisition is thus to be a steady progress on a broad base, so that you are gradually developing an increasing awareness of the way in which Greek words and forms and constructions are actually used, from encountering them in use. 
A0.26 For most people this is a completely new approach to learning a subject, though it is in fact akin to how you progressively learnt your own mother tongue in the first place. 
A0.27 This all means that you should indeed learn as much as you can by means of each of the learning opportunities (as set out below), concentrating particularly upon those sections of a Lesson that are indicated as most important: but you should not be dismayed or even surprised when you are taken on to a new Lesson before you have fully grasped the last one. You should proceed at your own pace (that is, irrespective of whether others are ahead of you or behind)

APPENDIX A: A STUDENT'S GUIDE TO THE USE OF THIS BOOK 169 
without being concerned that your pace is not faster. Be content to build your knowledge of Greek gradually; do not be discouraged if you do not remember everything at the first or second hearing: you are not expected to. Your knowledge of the different aspects of Greek will fill out as you are exposed to more and more of the language in extracts from the New Testament during Stage One (the Beginner's Course) and, in Stage Two (the Intermediate Course), in progressing through 1 John, Mark or John (or some other New Testament book) and in working through Appendices C, D, and E. 
A0.28 The points of grammar which have been made in each Lesson, and that do need to be noted, are covered in the Workbook which accompanies this book. Be sure to make the fullest use of the help this Workbook can provide. 
A0.3 LEARNING OPPORTUNITIES 
A0.30 For those who are part of a class (there will be comments for students studying privately in #A0.4) there are several "learning points" for each Lesson which provide "learning opportunities" that will contribute cumulatively to the growth of your knowledge of Greek: 
A0.31 Student's Preliminary Reading of the Lesson: If you are able to do so, it is always helpful to do a quick preliminary reading of each Lesson before coming to the Session of your class where it will be introduced. This will provide you with a sense of direction — an awareness, in a general way, of the work that is to be tackled next, and an overview of that work. This quick Preliminary Reading enables you to see the whole of the next work unit in its totality, to get an idea of its scope, and thus to prepare yourself for its presentation in detail. It is something akin to looking at a roadmap of where you are going before you commence a journey. 
A0.32 The Introduction of the Lesson by the Teacher: The teacher introduces the grammar content of each new Lesson in its turn, going through each section and explaining it, giving drills in the new paradigms, and discussing any questions raised by the class. This provides you with the opportunity of becoming familiar with the new material, seeing its interrelationships, and gaining an initial understanding of its use. 
A0.33 Specific Memorization: In each Lesson, two or three Greek paradigms or flexions (or other material) are set for memorization. A specific effort is now to be made by the student to memorize this particular material. 
A0.34 Second Reading by the Student, and Workbook Exercises: The Workbook Practice Sheets and Exercises focus attention on the various issues covered in each Lesson. You are then to find those answers not known to you by looking through the Lesson material, which will require a second reading of whatever was not remembered. This will serve to consolidate your overall understanding of the Lesson. 
A0.35 Sentence Translation: Next, you are to put the work of the Lesson to immediate use in the translation of a number of sentences from English into Greek, and of selections from the Greek New Testament, which utilize the grammatical content of the Lesson. The aim of your translation from the New Testament is to reflect an understanding of the meaning of the Greek text, and therefore it must be as literal as it can be (a full explanation of the approach to your translation will be given in #A2.4). In seeking to understand the meaning of the Greek, you will need to use the paradigms you have learnt and to refer back frequently to the grammatical content of the Lesson, and to make use of other aids available such as your Vocabulary Cards. This point in your work,
170 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
at which you make use of the Lesson material in gaining an understanding of a New Testament sentence, is a major learning opportunity: seek therefore to gain an adequate grasp of the grammar that is needed to understand the sentence, and of how the sentence uses that grammar to express its meaning. There will be words, expressions, or constructions, that you cannot readily decipher: do not spend time on these (see #A2.6) but make a note of the problem for classroom discussion. 
A0.36 Revision and Recapitulation: Your next Classroom Session will commence with a brief recapitulation of the previous Lesson, together with drills in that Lesson's flexions (or the most important ones, at least). Use this as a check on your overall understanding of that Lesson and of your work in memorizing the set flexions, and in your general understanding of the other flexions and your ability to recognize forms from them. 
A0.37 Classroom Consideration of Sentences: After the recapitulation and drills, the class will consider in detail the Greek sentences given in the set Assignments. Take every opportunity to translate a sentence in class and to have it commented upon. Note differences between how you have rendered each of the sentences and the renderings of other members of the class, and ask questions about all the points that are not clear to you. It is important for the learning process that you should come to the point where you can understand the explanations that are given, and the form and meaning of the words in the sentences. 
A0.38 Review and Reference Back: In the work on subsequent Lessons, matters will arise which require you to refer back to points of grammar in earlier Lessons. Use these references back to earlier material as an opportunity to review and consolidate your knowledge of that work. Additionally, use any break between the conclusion of your Stage One (Beginner's) Course and the commencement of Stage Two (the Intermediate Course) to work through all the Lessons again, in sequence. You will find that the Greek sentences will now be considerably easier, and that many matters not quite clear when you went through the book the first time will have now fallen into place, and you will be able to have a much better "feel" for the overall functioning of Greek. In your Review of Stage One in this way, attempt to translate the sentences accurately at sight, without writing down a translation. The greater the extent to which you can do this, the better the extent to which you have grasped your work. But however well (or badly) you fare in this Review, the next stage in your learning, studying a Gospel in Greek, will help you progress further. 
A0.4 SELF STUDY SUGGESTIONS 
A0.41 If you are not a member of a Greek class, why not form a class of your own to work with you? In your church or Christian fellowship or circle of friends, there are sure to be several people who would like to learn to read the Greek New Testament, given the opportunity and a little encouragement. You can provide both of these. Gather together those interested, and plan a suitable meeting time and place. Read through the Basic Principles For Teachers (Appendix B) and you can teach yourselves, even though none of you has done Greek before. Amongst the many advantages of working together in this way: you can give help and encouragement to each other in the work; you can verify each other's pronunciations of the Greek; one member of a group will often spot an error that another has made and not noticed; you can test each other's memorizing of the paradigms and flexions; a co-operative attack on the translation of the Greek sentences will produce better results than if you are working alone; often a small group working together will persevere with the Course through the hard and the tedious parts where a lone student will be tempted to give up; and so on. 

APPENDIX A: A STUDENT'S GUIDE TO THE USE OF THIS BOOK 171 
A0.42 A small group working together can provide an environment for learning that is not far below that of a formal class. While taking the study of Greek seriously, a group can have fun and fellowship together. Laughter is a tremendous learning environment. A0.43 If joining a class or forming your own group are both out of the question, you can certainly do this Course successfully on your own. But you need to realize that to do this is more difficult, and that you will have to accept the discipline of putting time aside for Greek on a regular basis a few days every week, and keeping that time sacrosanct — or there will always be something "more important" that will arise and claim it. Make it your aim to progress through this book at the fastest rate you can, and follow as far as possible in your personal study all the guidelines for classroom situations that are given in this Appendix and Appendix B — adapt these according to circumstances and apply them to your own situation. 
A0.44 There will of course be problems you encounter where you (or your group) will need to consult someone with a greater knowledge of Greek. A minister or some other person who has studied Greek may be your answer here. Alternatively, you yourself may be that person at a later stage of your own Course — you yourself will then have a greater knowledge of Greek, and you will find that many of your earlier problems simply resolve themselves. 
<hr>
</div>

<div id="A1" class="Lesson">
A1. LESSON ONE 
A1.1 LESSON GOAL This Lesson has a threefold goal: 
A1.11 To become fluent in reading the Greek letters accurately. This includes learning the alphabet. The graduated pronunciation exercises which follow will introduce you to the alphabet. A1.12 To begin writing the Greek letters correctly. A1.13 To become familiar with Greek punctuation. A1.14 To learn about Greek words, including learning the flexion of the verb "to be", and doing some simple translation from Greek into English and vice versa. 
A1.2 LETTERS SIMILAR TO ENGLISH IN APPEARANCE AND PRONUNCIATION 
A1.21 Almost half the letters of the Greek alphabet — ten out of the twenty-four — are sufficiently close to their English counterparts for them to be readily recognizable. Nine of the ten can also be pronounced similarly to English (the tenth, υ, will be discussed a little later, in #A1.37). 
A1.22 These ten similar letters are: α β γ δ ε ι κ ο ς τ and υ. Their English equivalents are: a b d e i k o s t and u. 
A1.23 There is no dot over the Greek ι. 
A1.24 The α can be pronounced as short, as in "along", or long, as in "father", but it is NOT pronounced with the English "a" sounds as in "cat" or "name". 
A1.25 The ι can be pronounced as short, as in "in", or long, as in "ski", "kiosk", and "machine", but it is NOT pronounced with the English "i" sound as in "find".
172 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
A1.26 When pronouncing a Greek word at this stage, make α and ι short unless it "feels" better to you to pronounce them long.
A1.27 BUT: ε can only be short, as in "penguin", and ο can only be short, as in "got".
A1.28 NOTE: In the following pronunciation exercises, many words start with a smooth or rough breathing. Make sure you say them correctly! 
A1.29 The following forty-nine Greek words use only these letters (not including υ). Practise reading them out aloud several times, being particularly careful to pronounce the vowels correctly, as in the key words "along", "father", "in", "ski", "penguin", and "got". Ἀββᾶ, βία, δέκα, διά, κατά, κακός, τάς, βάτος, βίος, διαβάς, καταβάς, δέ, δίς, δοκός, δέος, ἴδε, τε, ἐκ, ἔτι, τίς, ἔτεκες, ἔκδικος, ἔτικτον, ἴδιος, ἀδικία, διότι, κακία, ἄκακος, ἄδικος, κόκκος, ἔκδοτος, ὁ, ὅς, ὅτι, ὅτε, ὅδε, τότε, τόδε, ἐᾶτε, ἔτος, ὁδός, ἐδίδετο, ἐκτός, ἕκτος, δεκτός, τακτός, ἄτακτος, διδακτός, διδακτικός 
A1.3 LETTERS SIMILAR IN APPEARANCE BUT DIFFERENT FROM ENGLISH 
A1.30 Six Greek letters look something like English letters but are in fact quite different — and so they need to be carefully noted. Practise reading the words containing these letters. Take care to pronounce each letter separately: there are no pairs of vowels here that are pronounced together as one sound (a diphthong). 
A1.31 γ not "y", but "g" as in "got". 
γέ, ἄγε, ἅγιος, ἁγία, κατάγαγε, διαταγάς, ὄγδοος, ἀγάγετε 
A1.32 η is not "n", but long "e", pronounced as in "there" and "where". 
ἤ, ἥ, γῆ, δή, βοή, δίκη, γόης, ἀκοή, ἥδε, δεκάτη, διετής, ἀκήκοα 
A1.33 ν is not "v", but "n" as in "in". 
ἐν, ἕν, ἦν, ἀνά, ἵνα, ὅταν, ναός, τέκνον, γένος, ἤγαγον, ἱκανός; διάκονος, ἐγένετο, ἁγνήν
A1.34 ρ is not "p", but "r" as in "throw" or "rope". 
ἀγρός, ἀγορά, ὄρος, ἕτερος, τρίτος, νεκρός, κρίνετε, γάρ, ἄρτος, καρδία, ἔργον, κέρδος, ὄρνις 
A1.35 χ is not "x", but "ch" (sometimes written "kh") — this sound is not used in standard English, but it occurs in Scottish "loch", and German "Bach" (the name of the composer), and it is also found in Hebrew and numbers of other languages. You make this sound by forming your mouth as if you are going to say "k", almost closing the back of your palate, and then breathing a rough "h" sound through it. 
χαρά, χάρις, χόρτος, χρόνος, ἄχρι, ἀρχή, δοχή, διδαχή, ἔχιδνα, ἔνοχος, τρέχοντες 
A1.36 ω is not "w", but long "о̄" ("ow"), as in "throw" or "rope".⁷
ἐγώ, ἔχω, ἄρχω, ἕως, ὧδε, ὥρα, κρίνω, ὁράω, διώκω, δώδεκα, ἐρωτάω, ἀγωγή 
A1.37 υ is indeed "u", but it is NEVER pronounced like the English "u" in "but". It is usually short (in which case it is pronounced like the "u" in "put"), and it can be long (in which case it is

APPENDIX A: A STUDENT'S GUIDE TO THE USE OF THIS BOOK 173 
pronounced like the "u" in "truth"). If it carries a circumflex, as in νῦν, it will always be long; if it has another accent or no accent, it could be either short or long: adopt the rule of thumb of pronouncing it as short (as in "put") unless you are told otherwise by your teacher. 
νῦν, νυκτός, γυνή, ὕδωρ, δυνατός, τυχόν, κύριος, ὑδρίας, ἐκχύννω, τέτυχεν, ὑγιές 
A1.4 GREEK LETTERS DIFFERENT IN APPEARANCE FROM ENGLISH 
A1.40 The remaining eight Greek letters are different in appearance from any English letters, and there is, in addition, another form of the letter "s" which is used whenever it occurs anywhere in a word EXCEPT as the last letter. 
A1.41 ζ is "dz" (a double letter), pronounced as in "adze".⁷ (This sound is also heard in the word "gods", though in this particular English word it is spelt with "ds".) Be careful to pronounce both sounds, even when this letter stands first in a word. 
γάζα, ζῆν, κράζω, ῥίζα, βιάζω, ἁγιάζω, ζωή, ζάω, ζητέω, ζυγός 
A1.42 θ is "th" as in "think" or "throw", NEVER as in "this" or "though". 
θεός, θύρα, θρόνος, καθώς, ἔθνος, ἐχθές, ἐχθρός, ἐνθάδε, ἀγαθός, καθαρός, θάνατος, θυγάτηρ, θεωρέω 
A1.43 λ is "l", as in "boil", "glimpse". 
λέγω, λόγος, βάλλω, θέλω, ἀλλά, καλός, λίθος, ὅλος, λαός, ὄχλος, ἐκλεκτός, λαλέω, δῆλον, βιβλίον 
A1.44 μ is "m", as in "men", "glimpse". 
μόνος, νόμος, ἅμα, ἐμός, ῥῆμα, μετά, μένω, μήτηρ, ὄνομα, τίθημι, δύναμις, ἡμέρα, ἔρημος, μαρτυρέω 
A1.45 ξ is "x" (a double letter), as in "six", "treks", "locks". 
νύξ, θρίξ, δόξα, ἔξω, ἕξετε, ἔξοδος,ἐξάγω, ἄξιος, δεξιός, ἀξίνη, ἐδέξατο, ξένος, ξύλον, δοξάζω 
A1.46 π is "p", as in "put", "group". 
πᾶς, πρός, παρά, ὑπό, ἐπί, ἑπτά, τόπος, πόλις, πάλιν, πίπτω, γραπτός, βλέπομεν, ἀγάπη, ἄνθρωπος 
A1.47 σ is "s" when used initially or medially (that is, elsewhere than at the end of a word). 
σύ, σύν, σάρξ, σῴζω, ὥστε, γλῶσσα, ὅσος, μέσος, κόσμος, ὅστις, Χριστός, γένεσις, ἐκκλησία, ἀπόστολος 
A1.48 φ is "ph", as in "photograph" (pronounced the same as the "f" in "feud"). 
φῶς, φωνή, φημί, φίλος, τυφλός, τρέφω, γράφω, σοφία, ἄφεσις, ἔφαγον, ἔφυγον, κεφαλή, ἀδελφός, προφήτης, ὀφθαλμός 
A1.49 ψ is "ps" (a double letter), as in "glimpse", "steps". 
ἅψας, ὀψία, διψάω, ὑψόω, θλῖψις, ὀψάριον, ψυχή, ψηφίζω, ἀποκάλυψις, ψαλμός, ψαλλέτω 
<hr>
</div>

<div id="A2" class="Lesson">
174 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
A2. LESSON TWO 
A2.1 STEMS AND SUFFIXES 
A2.11 The first goal for Lesson Two is understanding the concept of an inflected word. As a rough and ready rule-of-thumb you can take it that, in a given flexion, the part of a word that does not change is the stem, and the part that changes in the different forms in the flexion is the suffix. 
A2.12 Question: Apply this rule-of-thumb to κύριος and ἔργον (#2.40): what is the stem of each? 
A2.13 Answer: The stem of κύριος is κυρι-, which is the lexical morph (lexal) carrying the meaning "lord". The various morphs added to κυρι- are the suffixes called numbercase morphs meaning "nominative singular", "genitive plural", and so on as the case may require. Similarly the stem of ἔργον is ἐργ-, and the morphs that are added are the numbercase morphs, indicating number and case. Note the similarities and differences between the masculine and neuter numbercase morphs. 
A2.14 Question: Apply this rule-of-thumb to λύω (#2.81): what are its stem and suffixes? 
A2.15 Answer: The stem of λύω is λυ-, which is the lexical morph (lexal) carrying the meaning "loose", and the morphs added to λυ- can for practical purposes be treated as suffixed pronouns (pronoun endings) meaning "I", "you", "they", etc. 
A2.16 This rough rule-of-thumb sometimes needs to be elastic enough to take account of the fact that a stem can change. Thus, Question: What is the stem of the Article (#2.4) and of εἰμί (#1.95)? 
A2.17 Answer: The stem of the Article is τ- , and the rest of each form of the Article consists of the numbercase suffix; but in the nominative singular and plural of both masculine and feminine, the stem is the rough breathing only. The stem of eipi is really ἐσ-, but in three forms the -σ- has been replaced by an -ι- (the reason for this will be explained in due course). 
A2.2 THE REASON FOR THE MANY FORMS OF THE ARTICLE 
A2.21 The second goal is to understand the reason for the twenty-four forms of the Article. 
A2.22 Why so many? Because the noun selects the form of the Article that must be used with it, and the form of the Article selected will be the one that agrees with it in gender, number, and case. 
A2.23 A noun has an inherent gender: ἔργον, for example, is always neuter. This means that only the neuter forms of the Article can be used with it. In a particular sentence, if ἔργον is being used as a subject, and in the plural (as for example, "The works of the flesh . .", Galatians 5:19), then the form of ἔργον used will need to be the nominative plural, ἔργα, and this will select to accompany it that form of the neuter Article which is nominative plural, τά. 
A2.24 Similarly, if one wished to say "of the lord", κύριος will need to be in the genitive singular, κυρίου, and being masculine will select the form of the Article that is masculine genitive singular, that is, τοῦ. 
A2.25 The converse of this is that the Article is frequently a useful guide to the gender, number, and case of the noun with which it is used — something which becomes quite important with the Third Declension (see Lesson Five). 

APPENDIX A: A STUDENT'S GUIDE TO THE USE OF THIS BOOK 175 
A2.3 USING A PARADIGM TO FIND THE MEANING OF OTHER WORDS 
A2.31 At this point, make sure that you have memorized the set paradigms for this Lesson. The next goal is understanding how the paradigm of one word applies as a pattern for other words. 
A2.32 If the stem of κύριος is κυρι- and -ος is the numbercase ending, then we can tell that the stem of νόμος is νομ-, for -ος is its numbercase ending. From the paradigm of κύριος we see that, as κυρι- is the stem, -οις is the dative plural numbercase ending, having the meaning "to (the) — " or "for (the) — ", so that τοῖς κυρίοις means "to the lords" or "for the lords". Therefore if we put this same ending on to the stem νομ- (which means "law" — see #1.41), then we get τοῖς νόμοις, which thus means "to the laws" or "for the laws". Which of these two possible meanings is intended would be indicated by the context each time it is used. 
A2.33 So when you come across a Greek noun (say, θεοῦ), the first step towards understanding its meaning is to break it into stem and numbercase ending, then locate the lexical meaning of the word in your Vocabulary/Dictionary, and work out the meaning of the numbercase ending from the parallel form in a paradigm (that is, the form that has the same numbercase ending). The lexical form of θεοῦ) is θεός, "God", and so the appropriate paradigm for θεός is the one for κύριος, and the parallel form for θεοῦ is κυρίου, which is genitive singular. Thus we arrive at the meaning of θεοῦ as "of God", "God's". 
A2.34 The same approach is followed with verbs, using the paradigm for λύω (#2.81): λυ- is the stem (the lexal, carrying the verb's meaning) and the balance of the word consists of two grammatical morphs that are closely joined together. The first of these is the neutral morph (#2.77) and the second is the pronoun morph, a cut-down version of an unemphasized personal pronoun added to the word, meaning "I", "you", "they", or the like. 
A2.35 The neutral morph is always -ο- or -ε-: it is -ο- when it is followed by -υ- (λυ-ο-υ-σιν), and when the pronoun morph commences with a nasal (as in λυ-ο-μεν) or consists of lengthening the neutral morph (λυ-ω), and it is -ε- in all other cases. The role of the neutral morph will be explained later (#4.36 and #4.44(b)]. It does not affect us at present and so for convenience the neutral morph can be taken together with the pronoun morph. 
A2.36 Thus we can divide the forms of the flexion of λύω in this way: 

<table>
 <tr>
 <td></td><td></td><td>loose</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>S</td><td>1</td><td>λύ - ω</td><td>I</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td> </td><td>2</td><td>λύ - εις</td><td>you (singular)</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td> </td><td>3</td><td>λύ - ει</td><td>he/she/it</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>P</td><td>1</td><td>λύ - ομεν</td><td>we</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td> </td><td>2</td><td>λύ - ετε</td><td>you (plural)</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td> </td><td>3</td><td>λύ - ουσι(ν)</td><td>they</td>
 </tr>
</table>

A2.37 The same flexion can be constructed for any other verb:

<table>
 <tr>
 <td></td><td></td><td>see</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>S</td><td>1</td><td>βλέπ - ω</td><td>I</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td> </td><td>2</td><td>βλέπ - εις</td><td>you (singular)</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td> </td><td>3</td><td>βλέπ - ει</td><td>he/she/it</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>P</td><td>1</td><td>βλέπ - ομεν</td><td>we</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td> </td><td>2</td><td>βλέπ - ετε</td><td>you (plural)</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td> </td><td>3</td><td>βλέπ - ουσι(ν)</td><td>they</td>
 </tr>
</table>

A2.38 All the verbs that follow λύω in their present tense (the great majority of New Testament verbs) can be divided in the same way that has been done for βλέπω. You then replace the -ω of the lexical form with the appropriate pronoun suffix for the form that is required. Thus to form "they say", take the lexical form, λέγω, "I say", and substitute -ουσι(ν) ("they") for -ω ("I") to get the correct form λέγουσι(ν). 
A2.39 Test yourself: from ἔχω, "I have", construct the form "we have". 

176 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
A2.4 PRINCIPLES OF TRANSLATION 
A2.41 The various explanations and ideas that have been given so far can now be put together and used as the translation techniques for deciphering Greek sentences. The section which follows next will show how that is to be done. 
A2.42 First of all, however: reflect for a moment upon the question of what kind of translation you should aim to produce. There is a temptation for a student to attempt to give the best, smoothest, and most idiomatic English translation of the Greek sentences he is working on. This attempt is in fact misguided and unhelpful. Do not allow yourself to fall into this trap. 
A2.43 When you translate Greek material into English, this is not the ultimate purpose of your study in Greek at all. It is simply a means to an end. Your goal is to be able to read the Greek New Testament with understanding; when you translate from Greek into English, this is done as a stage in the process of developing your own understanding of the Greek, and it is also to enable your teacher to assess the level of your progress. Do not try, therefore, to put the passage into a kind of smooth-flowing, natural language that the biblical author may have used if he had in fact been writing in English. On the contrary: render the Greek into equivalent English so that the English shows what the author actually wrote in Greek. 
A2.44 Your aim therefore must be absolute accuracy in your translation into English. The Greek grammatical form must be expressed in its precise English equivalent: you must render a plural in Greek by a plural in English; if the Greek verb is present tense you must express it by a present tense in English; and so on. Translate what is there, without omitting material that is in the Greek or adding extra material into the English. This will very definitely mean that at times you are producing English that is stilted, jerky, and even perhaps unnatural, but the test is: Is it conveying accurately exactly what is being said in the Greek? 
A2.45 However, it is important to translate not only the words of the Greek into English, but also the other features of Greek syntax — word order, special constructions and ways of expressing an idea, etc. There is a difference, that is, between a word-for-word translation and a literal transla-tion. A word-for-word translation (as in an interlinear version) renders each word by its English equivalent but does not take due notice of units of expression larger than the word. A literal translation (and this is your aim) expresses in English exactly what is in the Greek but in doing so translates all the other features of the Greek in addition to just the words as such. 
A2.46 Some of the features of Greek syntax that have been referred to are ones that will be explained in subsequent lessons, but we can note these three examples from what has been covered in Lesson Two: (a) Greek names of people often have the Article; this Article would not usually be rendered in English (see #2.34); (b) Greek word position can indicate special emphasis (see #2.92), and it may be desirable at times to find a way in English of indicating this emphasis-by-position; (c) it is a Greek idiom that a neuter plural subject regularly takes a singular verb (see #2.17) — you would render this Greek singular verb into English in the plural. An example of another idiom to be covered later in the Course: When Greek reports indirect speech, it retains the tense that the original speaker would have used, whereas English requires that in indirect speech the verb be put into the past. 
A2.47 At times the Greek will be found to be ambiguous, being capable of having two (or more) interpretations. So far as possible, retain this ambiguity in your English rendering, so that you show an awareness of both possibilities; do not shut out, in your English version, part of the range of meaning that is present in the Greek. 

APPENDIX A: A STUDENT'S GUIDE TO THE USE OF THIS BOOK 177 
A2.48 The ultimate goal towards which you are aiming in Stage One of your Course is to be able to read the Selections from the Greek New Testament in Greek and understand the meaning of what the Greek is saying without actually translating them into English. Now this goal may prove to be beyond the reach of many who do the Course: but a slightly lower goal, which should be well within the range of most students, is to reach the point of being able to read through all the various sentences in this Course and to translate them orally at sight. You may well fall short of this at the time of doing each Lesson (though some students will be able to attain it), but after you have gone through all ten Lessons of the Beginner's Course and you return to the earlier Lessons to revise them (#A0.38), you should find yourself increasingly able to do this. 
A2.49 Always write your translation of sentences on a separate piece of paper. NEVER write a translation on the pages of this book itself. If you were to do that, you would see it each time you revised your earlier sentences, and your understanding would thus become limited to what it had been at the time your translation was first written out. To translate afresh each time you revise is to improve your competence in understanding the meaning of the Greek. 
A2.5 TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES 
A2.51 Before attempting the translation of a Greek sentence, read it over aloud in Greek one or more times, being careful to use the correct pronunciation. Try to get a "feel" for how the sentence operates (this will become easier as your familiarity with Greek improves). Associating the sound of Greek in word and sentence with the appearance of the Greek is a very valuable aid to learning which should not be neglected — it is reinforcing learning by familiarizing you with the sight and sound of Greek simultaneously. 
A2.52 The first step to take in commencing the actual work of translation is to check whether or not the sentence is a question. This will be indicated in your edition of the Greek New Testament by a question mark (;) at the end — as your familiarity with Greek increases, you will learn that there are also a number of Greek words which indicate that a question is being asked. If it is a question, you may possibly find it easier to translate the sentence first of all as if it were a statement, and then transform it into a question in English as a second step. 
A2.53 Look for the verb in the sentence (or, if it is a long sentence, with two or more sections joined by conjunctions such as καί, δέ, ἀλλά, γάρ, οὖν, or others that you will learn, work on the first section of the sentence first; then go on to the next section). At this stage you will be able to recognize the verb by its form: either it will be one of the forms from the flexion of εἰμί that you have learnt (#1.95) or it will consist of the lexal of a verb plus one of the endings of λύω) (see #2.81, #A2.36 and #A2.37). If you have learnt λύω thoroughly, you should be able to spot a verb quite quickly. In subsequent Lessons you will be introduced to more of the varied forms that a verb can take — each time you are presented with a new verb flexion it is important for you to note the features that will enable you to recognize each of its forms as being a verb. 
A2.54 If the verb is afirst or second person form, then the subject is an internal subject, that is, it is the pronoun suffix (#2.76) already contained within the verb: "I", "we" or "you" (singular or plural) as the case may be. There may also be an external subject in the sentence as well, which will be the nominative case of the separate pronoun with the same meaning, and this will thus have an emphatic effect (see #1.95, #2.86). The degree of emphasis will vary according to the style of the author and his intention in a particular context, and can range from slight to very emphatic: the context will be your guide. 

178 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
A2.55 If the verb is third person, then the next step is to look for an external subject (#2.84). If there is one, it will have three features which will aid you in locating it: (a) it will be in the nominative case (which you will recognize from knowing the nominative case endings for the different paradigms); (b) it will very frequently have the definite article in front of it, in the nominative case (and the forms of the article are ones that you have learnt, and are very easy to recognize); and (c) it will customarily be just after (or sometimes just in front of) the verb of which it is the subject — occasionally it may be separated from its verb by other words. If there is no external subject to be found, then you will make use of the verb's internal subject: "he" (or sometimes "she" or "it") if the verb is singular, and "they" if it is plural (#2.83, #2.85). 
A2.56 Look next for other words which are linked to subject and verb — an adjective referring to the subject (which will be either in front of the noun, or after the noun with the noun's article repeated in front of it; such an adjective will have the same gender, number and case as the noun), or a word — such as a negative — referring to the verb. Another common type of word to look for is a noun or pronoun in the genitive case referring to the subject. The usual position for such a genitive is immediately after the word to which it refers. 
A2.57 Now see if there are words in front of, after, or fairly close to the verb which are accusative case and are not preceded by a preposition. Apart from a few special idioms that you will meet in due course, these accusatives will normally form the direct object of the verb. In your English translation you will place such a word or words immediately after the verb. Thus in the sentence "You have faith", "faith" is the direct object and so will be in the accusative case (πίστιν) and, as is frequently the case for the direct object, it comes in front of the verb in Greek; when the sentence is translated into English this direct object is then placed after the verb ("have"). 
A2.58 Finally, translate any prepositional phrases (a preposition followed by a noun, either with or without an article between them) and any other words which remain. Use your Vocabulary Cards or the Greek Vocabulary at the end of this book (Appendix G) for any words you do not know. 
A2.59 Assemble your translation, putting the Greek word order into correct English order: any introductory words (such as "and" or "for" or "behold", etc.), the subject, the verb (noting if it is negative or interrogative), the object, if any, and any other expressions in the sentence, putting these with the words to which they refer. If a sentence is in two (or more) parts, the division will usually be marked by punctuation and/or a conjunction (such as "and" or "but" or similar word), and each part of the sentence (called a clause) is best handled separately. In your translation, do not take words out of one clause of a sentence and put them into another clause. 
A2.6 HANDLING GREEK WORD ORDER 
A2.61 Some people encounter no problem with Greek word order, while others find it very difficult. This section is intended to assist those who are having trouble with Greek word order. 
A2.62 In both languages, a sentence may consist of one or more clauses — if there are more than one, each clause will usually have a verb of its own, and at least one clause and quite probably both or all of them will have a conjunction (#2.18; #2.96). You need to deal with each clause on its own. 
A2.63 Your goal is to end up with an intelligible English sentence that accurately conveys the meaning of the Greek. Each Greek sentence and each English sentence consist of a number of "meaning units" — words, and groups of words which collocate (that is, "go together" in meaningful patterns). These "meaning units" are the "building blocks" of sentences in both 

APPENDIX A: A STUDENT'S GUIDE TO THE USE OF THIS BOOK 179 
languages. But Greek word order is rarely the same as English word order. Therefore, to achieve your goal you are going to need to translate Greek word order into English word order. Think of these "building blocks" as actually being empty boxes with different names, into which are placed the appropriate words of a clause or sentence. That is, a sentence (in Greek or English) is like a row of these boxes, with most of the words going into one box or another, and a few words being jammed into the "cracks" between two boxes. You will find these boxes in one order in a Greek sentence, and your task is not only to translate the Greek words but to rearrange the boxes into the right order required by an English sentence. 
A2.64 First, let us note the standard English word order. There are five main "building blocks" or "boxes", usually occurring in a set order: 
Conjunction Subject Verb Direct Object/ Complement Indirect Object 
That is, these are the names on the five "boxes" which make up an English sentence, and this is the order in which those boxes need to be placed. If the verb has a negative, this goes as part of the verb's "building block"; the article, adjectives, and genitives which refer to a noun go in that noun's "building block" or "box". Other words — vocatives, adverbs, prepositional phrases, and the like — are then fitted into the "cracks" between these "boxes". Very few sentences will have something in every "box" — for most sentences there will be one or more empty "boxes". Here is a two-part sentence which we can put into two rows of "boxes" and "cracks": "So Jesus told these parables to the crowds, but privately he explained everything to his own disciples." 

<table>
 <tr>
 <td>So</td><td></td><td>Jesus</td><td>told</td><td>these parables</td><td>to the crowds,</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>but</td><td>privately</td><td>he</td><td>explained</td><td>everything</td><td>to his own disciples.</td>
 </tr>
</table>

Sometimes these "boxes" can be rearranged differently in English — for example, some verbs (but only some) allow you to put the indirect object in front of the direct object, without using "to", like this: "So Jesus told the crowds these parables"; and you can usually rearrange some of the units, for example, "but to his own disciples he explained everything privately". But the pattern we are using will serve to give us an intelligible English sentence, so make it your goal to turn the Greek word order into this pattern in English. 
A2.65 Greek sentences are make up of the same basic "building blocks" as English sentences —#A2.5 has explained how these "meaning units" of a Greek sentence can be identified. Sometimes these "blocks" are already in the same order that English uses, as in Selections B9 and B22:
B9. 

<table style="border-radius: 10px;">
 <tr><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">Conjunction</td><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">ὁ ΠέτροςSubjectPeter</td><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">λέγειVerbsays</td><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">Direct Obj/Compl</td><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">αὐτῷ,Indirect Objectto him,</td></tr>
 <tr><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">Conjunction</td><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">ΣὺSubjectYou</td><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">εἶVerbare</td><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">ὁ ΧριστόςDirect Obj/Complthe Christ.</td><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">Indirect Object</td></tr>
</table>

180 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 

<table>
 <tr><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">ἰδούConjunctionBehold</td><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">ἀποστέλλωSubject VerbI am sending</td><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">τὸν ἄγγελόν μουDirect Obj/Complmy messenger</td><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">Direct Obj/Compl</td><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">πρὸ προσώπου σου.[other words]before your face.</td></tr>
</table>

A2.66 However a typical Greek sentence will have these "building blocks" in a different order:

<table>
 <tr><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">Conjunction</td><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">Direct Obj/Compl</td><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">Verb</td><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">Subject</td></tr>
</table>

NOTE: (a) if a verb has a noun subject, it will typically be placed after the verb; (b) if a verb has a pronoun subject, this may occur anywhere in the sentence; (c) if a verb has an internal subject, then verb and subject will be just one word; (d) there is no typical position for an indirect object — it can be found almost anywhere, in one of the "cracks" between the "building blocks". 
Selections B4 and B21 follow the "typical" pattern of a Greek sentence: 
B4. 

<table>
 <tr><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">Conjunction</td><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">ἄρτουςDirect Obj/Compl</td><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">οὐκ ἔχομενVerb Subject</td><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">Subject</td></tr>
</table>

NOTE: A negative goes into the verb "block", and when there is no external subject there will be just the one "block" for the verb with its internal subject. 
B21. 

<table>
 <tr><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">Conjunction</td><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">ἔργα τῶν χειρῶν σούDirect Obj/Compl</td><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">εἰσινVerb Subject</td><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">οἱ οὐρανοί·Subject</td></tr>
</table>


<table>
 <tr><td>NOTE: </td><td>(a) εἰσιν is a verb of equivalence (#2.95), so ἔργα is its complement; </td></tr>
 <tr><td></td><td>(b) the genitive expression referring to ἔργα goes into the same "block" with it. </td></tr>
</table>

A2.67 Most Greek sentences will have one or more words which do not fit into any "box" and which lie in one or other of the "cracks" between the "boxes"; and/or which have a "box" in a different order. For example, in Selection B 1 the emphatic pronoun ("we", ἡμεῖς) comes first. Similarly B3, B7, B12 and B20. And you will notice how the "dative of the person(s) spoken to" usually comes after the verb of speaking (in B8, B9, B 13, B 16 and B 17 — but not in B 15). For each Greek clause or sentence, identify the "building blocks" used in it, and what words come in between them. 
A2.68 Now take these "building blocks" of the Greek sentence which you have identified, and translate the Greek words and the order of the Greek "blocks" into English words and the order of English "blocks". You may find it helpful, while getting used to this procedure, to draw up a grid for your translation of each Greek clause, with a named box for each "building block", and fill in, in the correct box, the English translation for each "meaning unit" of the Greek sentence when you have identified it. Bear in mind that other parts of a sentence not covered by these "boxes" will be placed in the "cracks" between them. 

APPENDIX A: A STUDENT'S GUIDE TO THE USE OF THIS BOOK 181
This is the box grid you can use for your English translation: 

<table>
 <tr><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">Conjunction</td><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">Subject</td><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">Verb</td><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">Direct Object/Complement</td><td style="border: 1px solid black; border-radius: 10px;">Indirect Object</td></tr>
</table>

A2.7 TACKLING PROBLEMS 
A2.71 All these guidelines are to be used for the Sentences of Lesson Two and for all subsequent Lessons in this Course as well — they will enable you to decipher most of the Selections from the Greek New Testament. But what should you do when you meet problems: a word or a sentence that you simply cannot work out? 
A2.72 The best advice for such a situation is, Give up on it. Don't worry about that particular Selection — after you have worked on it and tried to translate it, and found it too difficult to understand, leave it altogether, and go on to the next one. Never feel obliged to work out each Sentence before you can leave it for another one: if you keep wrestling with one that you find difficult you could waste a great deal of your valuable time which could be more profitably used in doing the other Selections. The problem which has temporarily defeated you will invariably solve itself as the range of your exposure to Greek material increases. If however you do wish to pursue the problem further when you first encounter it, the following guidelines will be of help, both for Lesson Two and all subsequent Lessons. 
A2.73 First of all, reread the particular Course Lesson, and if necessary look back over the previous Lessons as well. Chances are that you have overlooked some comment or explanation which will give you the key to the point that is unclear, or which will unlock the right approach to the meaning. (If there is not a comment or explanation in any of the previous Lesson material, write and tell me — it means I have omitted including one, and it would be helpful for me to have you point this out to me.) 
A2.74 Next, consult (according to the nature of the problem) a lexicon or dictionary, the appropriate Appendix at the end of this book, a detailed grammar book, or a commentary on the Greek text of the New Testament. 
A2.75 Check out the particular passage in an Interlinear Greek New Testament, or in one of the more literal English translations of the New Testament (RV or NASB), and see if this clears up the difficulty. (This is most likely to be helpful if the problem is being able to work out the right English order for the Greek words.) 
A2.76 If you are a member of a Greek class, discuss the problem with other members of your class. This is always a good practice for your Greek work generally — two or three students working together can often help each other to understand the full meaning of a Sentence, for one will see what another misses. 
A2.77 Make a note of the problem that you have met, and if it is not covered in working through the translations of the New Testament Selections at the next Session of your Greek class, raise the problem yourself for discussion and clarification. 
A2.78 But remember: don't be at all concerned at finding in practice that your knowledge of Greek is only partial and incomplete, even for dealing with these Selections from the Greek New Testament. Reading and more reading from the Greek New Testament is the best way of filling the gaps in one's knowledge. It is also the most enjoyable way. 
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</div>
<div id="A3" class="Lesson">
182 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
A3. LESSON THREE 
A3.1 PRONOUNS 
A3.11 The English equivalents for the personal pronouns should be carefully noted. They are: 
First Person Second Person
Third Person Masculine Feminine
Neuter
S N e yd) I 015 you afFcciç he afyrri she afxro it A eyelpe me cre you afirov him afyrriv her afyro it G epoi3/uov my col) your afYrof) his oct)-cfb; her afn-o13 its rto me rto you afyroj ito him I to her ito it D epoi /pot tfor me col ifor you af)11:7 t for her (xii i for it tfor him P N niueic we 'Oleic you throi at'n-ai af)Ta they A riyag us wag you at'rcoi5c- at')Tac af)rde them G npu5v our upo5v your ayrciiv cteniii v afn.ciiv their f to us , _ ito you to them D riiiiv vpiv airroic af)icafg. afyrof; {for them { us ifor you
A3.12 The longer forms of the first person singular pronoun (eye, etc.) are usually the emphatic forms, and the shorter forms (ye, etc.) are usually unemphatic, but sometimes this distinction does not seem to hold. The second person singular forms are emphatic if accented, unemphatic if not. 
A3.13 If you tend to confuse the respective meanings of r)peic and tViefg, note that the last letter of the English word is the first letter of its Greek equivalent: we long e you u 15,aeic 
A3.14 afird; al)24, afro means "he/she/it", but this word will be referring to some other word and takes the gender of the word that it refers to. Thus if afytdc refers to (for example) -kingdom" or "cloud" (which are feminine in Greek - see Vocabulary, L2/823 and L2/826), then it will need to be feminine in form, though the English translation would be "it" (because these words are neuter in English). 
A3.15 The plural forms of al:Fro; are all equivalent to English -they", but: the masculine plural covers masculine or combined masculine and feminine units; the feminine plural covers a group of units all of which are feminine; the neuter plural covers units which are neuter. "Unit" here means "whatever the word refers to", whether person or thing, and "masculine, feminine and neuter" refers to its/their grammatical gender in Greek. 
A3.16 The demonstrative pronoun/adjective ant); sometimes has the diphthong au- in its stem, and sometimes changes this to au-. Can you see when each one occurs? It is related to the ending of each form: if the ending contains an "o" (short or long), then the stem diphthong will be ov-; but if the ending contains an "a" (short or long - and this includes an i, which at times functions like a lengthened a), then the stem diphthong will be ay-. 
A3.17 The singular of oi5roc (see #3.32) means "this" and the plural means "these"; the same case meanings apply as usual, and the same features about gender apply as in #A3.15. Note that when a form of this word is used as a pronoun (i.e. without referring to another noun) it means "this one", and the gender indicates "this man", "this woman", "this thing" (#3.36). 

APPENDIX A: A STUDENT'S GUIDE TO THE USE OF THIS BOOK 183 
A3.2 THE PAST TENSES OF THE VERB 
A3.21 Note (#3.62) that k- added at the beginning of a verb form is the augment, the past time indicator or morph. Thus every verb that is referring to past time will commence with an k- if its lexal begins with a consonant; for example, 0a)ov, second aorist (note the single A) from PciA,A,co; and EiSov, from verb lexal iö- (#3.69). But there are some verbs which have a verb lexal commencing with k- (for example, x(.0, which we met in Lesson Two). Therefore, when working on a New Testament Selection, whenever we come across a verb form which commences with è-, we need to check in our Vocabulary or Dictionary to see whether this is a verb which has a lexal commencing with è-, or whether this k- is the past time morph added to the verb lexal. 
A3.22 When the verb lexal itself begins with E- , the past time morph (the augment) is the change of this E- into Thus the verb stem kAO- becomes 7);t9- when it is augmented (second aorist: 42,60v). Similarly, an initial a- also becomes , and o- becomes lengthened to co-. Whenever therefore we come across a verb form which commences with rfr or co-, we have to bear in mind that this may conceal an augment and thus the word may be a past time form of the verb. 
A3.23 There are some verb lexals which already begin with a long vowel or diphthong and are not changed by the addition of an augment. Thus the verb stem thy- remains thr- when augmented (second aorist: throv, #3.69). 
A3.24 There are three different patterns of the aorist active tense in Greek. This is to say, there are three conjugations in Greek (see #10.13) which may be clearly distinguished from each other in the aorist active flexion. The one being introduced this Lesson is the second aorist, i.e. the aorist active flexion of the Second Conjugation. The first aorist will be introduced in Lesson Four, and the third aorist in Lesson Seven. (Eipi is from the Third Conjugation, but the flexion from it which is given in Lesson Three is the imperfect tense — it has no aorist flexion.) 
A3.25 The second aorist active indicative is formed by prefixing the augment to the lexal and adding to the verb stem a two-part ending. The first part of this ending consists of a vowel which is called the neutral morph (see #2.77, #A2.35), and as in the present tense (see #A2.34) this two-part ending is made up of this neutral morph followed by the pronoun morph. Some of the pronoun morphs are the same in the second aorist as they were in the present tense (#A2.36), and some are different. 
A3.26 There are thus four morphs in the forms of the second aorist flexion: augment (past time morph); lexal; neutral morph; pronoun morph. They are all readily identifiable — except in the third person singular, where the ending is just -E. This -e is the pronoun morph: the neutral morph, -E-, elides (that is, slides off or hides from view) when a vowel suffix is added. (Elision will be further explained later on.) 
A3.27 Can you recognize the morphs in the forms of the flexion of f3a?Lov (#3.8)? The forms divide into morphs like this: 
1 -1(3o(A-o-v 2 .-Pot2L-E-3 -J3a). e(v) P 1 k-fica-o-atiEV 2 k-/3d)-e-TE 3 i-Pa).-o-v
A3.28 Sometimes we find that in a second aorist form a Greek writer has replaced the neutral morph with the vowel -a-, the vowel of the punctiliar morph which is used by the first aorist (as we

184 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
will see in Lesson Four). Thus we can come across thrav for the third person plural instead of the grammatically correct throv. An example of this is given in Selection 30 of this Lesson's Selections. This is a stylistic variation, and makes no difference in meaning. Indeed, it seems that when it is done it is intended to differentiate the third person plural from the first person singular form, throv- these two forms are identical in the paradigm of the second aorist. 
A3.29 Note the movable nu (#1.75) in the second aorist third person singular. 
A3.3 WAYS OF THINKING ABOUT GREEK VERB MORPHS 
A3.31 Understanding the functioning of the Greek verb is crucial for understanding the meaning of a Greek sentence. And a Greek verb is made up of many rnorphs each containing a unit of meaning, all of which together give the total meaning of the verb form in any particular sentence. 
A3.32 Like a freight train loaded with valuable merchandise, a Greek verb form is loaded with meaning. Just as a freight train consists of a number of "units" — trucks — each carrying valuable goods of different kinds, so a verb form consists of a number of "units" — morphs — each of which brings you a different piece of information. 
A3.33 To get the total value of your freight-train-load of goods, you have to unload all the trucks. Similarly, to get the value out of all the morphs in a Greek verb form, you must be sure to "unload" the meaning out of each individual morph, for every morph in the verb form is carrying its own piece of information for you. 
A3.34 Alternatively, a verb form can be viewed as a key to a lock, the morphs being the various bumps and indentations on the key. The exact form of these determines the particular meaning "unlocked" by a given verb form. 
A3.35 Or, a verb form can be likened to a jigsaw puzzle, the morphs being the different pieces, each of which has to be identified and put in its right place to build up the total picture. 
A3.36 Again, the meaning of a verb form is a mystery, and the morphs of the verb are the clues — work out the meaning of the clues, put everything all together, and you solve the mystery of what happened (the action described by that verb form). 
A3.37 One of the most helpful ways of viewing the verb morphs is as being like a set of electrical switches — some of them are simple on/off switches, and some are multiposition switches. Thus the augment is the past time on/off switch: when the augment is present in a word, this switch is "on", and it "switches" the meaning of that particular form of the verb to "past time position". The ending is a multiposition switch: when this switch reads "juev", this "position" indicates the meaning "we"; when this switch reads " Ti" , however, this "position" switches the meaning of the verb form to "you (plural)". And so on. 
A3.38 Keeping in your imagination these different ways of viewing the nature and function of the morphs in a verb form can help you in your approach to unscrambling its meaning. 
A3.4 CASE AFTER VERBS 
A3.41 Most verbs require accusative case in the noun which follows them as their direct object. Thus (Selection B26): et 8EV thjo a6E24aoc, where 815o dukAlpoijc ("two brothers") is the direct object of ET &V ("he saw"), and is therefore accusative case. 

APPENDIX A: A STUDENT'S GUIDE TO THE USE OF THIS BOOK 185
A3.42 Some verbs take the genitive case instead of (or as an alternative to) the accusative. Thus aicotjw, "I hear", is sometimes followed by the accusative case and on other occasions by the genitive case (as in Selection B 19). Different shades of meaning can sometimes be intended (see for example the standard commentaries on the use of ocovrj in the genitive case in Acts 9:7 and 22:7, but in the accusative case in Acts 22:9, in the accounts of Paul's conversion). 
A3.43 Some verbs take the dative case instead of the accusative case, especially where the noun refers to the person to whom the action of the verb applies. Thus 7r107E15C0 ("I believe") is often followed by the person who is to be believed, in the dative case. Alternatively, it can be followed by etc plus the accusative (as in Selection B6) or ?v plus the dative (as in Selection B 11). 
A3.5 COMMENTS ON THE ASSIGNMENTS 
A3.51 Do your Assignments in sequence. Make sure that you have memorized the paradigms set for learning in this Lesson — and in the previous Lessons — and that you understand the meaning of each of the forms you memorize. 
A3.52 After you have finished reading this section of Appendix A, answer the Questions in your Workbook, and then turn to your translations. Note particularly the Prepositions and the fact that each takes or selects a particular case (pErd has two possible cases, each with a different meaning). 
A3.53 When you commence your work on the Selections, remember to read each Selection aloud carefully and correctly before attempting to translate it (#A2.51). Then translate each of the Selections, not so as to produce smooth-flowing idiomatic English, but so as to bring out the exact meaning of the Greek. Read again #A2.44 to remind you of your aims in this regard. 
A3.54 Note that δέ never comes first in the Greek, but is always put first in the English rendering (#2.96). It can be translated either "and" or "but", according to the context (translate it as "and" unless the context shows that a contrast of some kind is in view, in which case "but" is the right rendering). 
A3.55 Some common expressions, especially with prepositions, are regarded as definite even (hough they do not use the definite article. Thus ev kthacio (Selections B23 and B28) means "in the middle/midst". Conversely, watch for places where the Greek article would not be required for English (as in Selection B1). 
A3.56 In addition to being used for "to" or "for", the dative case can also have the meaning of "in", as in T CP aái avopa-ct, "in your name" (Selection B 12). 
A3.57 When translating Selection B 19, remember that (contrary to the normal rules of agreement) in Greek a singular verb will normally be used after a neuter plural subject (see the Rule, #2.17). 
A3.58 If you need to find the meaning of a word in order to understand a particular Selection and the word is not printed alongside that Selection, this is because you have been introduced to this word already, either in a previous Lesson or earlier in this Lesson. You will be able to find the word in your pack of Vocabulary Cards, or in the earlier "New Words" for this Lesson. Remember to take off an augment, if it has one, in working out its lexical form (the form in which it will be given in a Vocabulary). (You will find it helpful to make out Vocabulary Cards for the new words of this Lesson as you come to each of them. so that you keep your pack fully up to date.) You can also look up any words you need in the Greek Vocabulary in Appendix 
<hr>
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<div id="A4" class="Lesson">
186 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
A4. LESSON FOUR 
A4.1 PARADIGM OF THE ACTIVE OF )/ow 
A4.11 Note carefully the indicative flexions of this Paradigm; particularly: (a) that the future is the same as the present, with the future time morph, -a-, added between lexal and endings; (b) that the imperfect has the augment and exactly the same set of endings as the second aorist (see #3.81); (c) that the first aorist is marked by having -o-a- throughout, except only for the third person singular where the punctiliar morph is -a-, the -a- of the full morph -aa- eliding when a vowel suffix (-E-) is added; (d) that the perfect has the same suffixes as the first aorist (with the aspect morph -Ica- instead of -aa-). The one exception is the third person plural, which is -at(v) not -v. 
A4.12 Note the meanings of the different morphs in the future forms; that the neutral morph has no meaning (when short, it simply shows that the form is not subjunctive mode); and that the English meaning of the word can be read across from right to left in the combined meaning of all the other morphs. Thus: — a — o loose will we 
A4.13 Similarly, the meaning of the aorist and perfect forms can be read in the morphs: (a) The aorist: e — A.v aa — 1.IEV -ed loose- we 
The aorist morph -aa- is not translated, but is noted as indicating the punctiliar meaning of the form, as distinct from the durative meaning of an imperfect tense form, etc. (The meaning of the imperfect cannot be read off from the morphs in this way, but aboitiev means "we were loosing".) (b) The perfect: — — /1EV -ed loose- have we 
A4.14 When a verb lexal commences with a consonant, the rule for reduplication is: double that initial consonant, and insert -E- between them. Thus, for the verb 8otaeow, the 8- is doubled and -E- inserted between, and the aspect morph -Ka- added to the lexal, to give the perfect 8e6otaevica. (When a verb commences with a vowel, a p, an aspirate, a double letter or two consonants together, special reduplication rules apply: see #E4.3.) 
A4.15 Note carefully the subjunctive flexions; particularly: (a) that the present subjunctive is the same as the present indicative but with the neutral morph lengthened, and that the -t- of a diphthong goes subscript and the -v- of the diphthong -ov- drops out; (b) that the aorist subjunctive is the same as the present subjunctive, with the punctiliar morph, -a-, added between lexal and endings. (The -a- of the full punctiliar morph -aa-has elided before the vowel suffixes.) 
A4.16 Note that the difference of meaning between the present and aorist subjunctive has nothing to do with time, but aspect. The present subjunctive means that the action under consideration (for example, "we might loose") is of a durative nature ("we might loose on an ongoing or continuing basis"). The aorist subjunctive means that the action under consideration is of a once-only nature, or relates just to the occasion in question ("we might loose on this particular occasion"). This difference of aspect applies to all use of the subjunctive. 
A4.17 Note carefully the other forms of the active Paradigm, and especially the differences between the corresponding forms of present and aorist. 
A4.18 Note that the aorist only has the augment in the indicative mode, which means that the aorist has past time signification only in the indicative mode. 

APPENDIX A: A STUDENT'S GUIDE TO THE USE OF THIS BOOK 187 
A4.19 Note the three pairs of forms in these flexions which have the same spelling: 0vov: the 1st person singular and 3rd person plural of the imperfect (we saw this also last Lesson for the second aorist, #3,83); ittjw: the 1st person singular present of the indicative and also of the subjunctive; 2.13cro): the 1st person singular future indicative and also aorist subjunctive. When these "ambiguous" forms are used, usually some factor in the context will enable you to know which of the pair is intended in any given instance. 
A4.2 EXAMPLES OF VERB USE AND RULES 
A4.21 In #4.45 we learn that the words Iva ("in order that") and div ("ever", indicating indefinite-ness) take the subjunctive after them. The word div is used when the indefiniteness of something is being expressed. Thus: (./1; áv n-apeA9r3 6 apavac icth tj yf (L4/B18), literally "until ever the heaven and the earth were to pass away", indicating the indefiniteness and uncertainty of the time when they shall pass away, or indeed the uncertainty that they ever shall. Occasionally this óv is written in the variant form kav, with the same meaning. Thus, bc kav oZ-v 2.15Trii (L4/B 18), "whoever then were to loose/break ..." Usually eav (a combination of Ei, "if", and ay) means "if ever", as in Kai kav 15piv EI7r0 ... (L4/1321), "and if ever anyone were to say to you ...", indicating that it is a possibility (but not certain) that someone will say something. 
A4.22 Similarly, 'Iva takes the subjunctive, for it usually expresses a purpose. Thus, Iva rcAripwerj )67.70ev 6tde rof) 7rpoOrfrov (L4/B19), "in order that what was spoken through Isaiah the prophet should be fulfilled". Sometimes Iva is used to indicate what should happen (and is translated "that"). Thus: bre-ripricev af)roi,; Iva oavepov afrrOv 7rotrio-watv (L4/B19), "he commanded them that they should not make him known". At times Iva is used to express a wish. Thus, Paf3Povvi,'Iva avaf3Aitm (L4/1321), "Rabbi, [my wish is] that I might see again". 
A4.23 Example of future of liquid verb (#4.56): In the future atjpw ("I drag") becomes first of all oweco, with the addition of future morph -E-, and then when this form is actually used in writing or speaking the two contiguous vowels (that is, vowels next to each other) contract and the word form becomes owai: note the different accent, which results from the contraction and distinguishes the future from cropco, the present tense. Similarly the future of vim ("I judge") is kplvew, which contracts to vivo5. (This is the sixth situation where an accent should be noted: for the five earlier ones, see #A1.37, #2.88, #3.37, #4.17, and #4.94.) 
A4.3 THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN PAIRS OF SIMILAR PREPOSITIONS 
A4.31 The core meaning of eic is "into" — something/someone is outside an environment, and enters it. Thus Jesus was driven by the Spirit Eig. iiv 437-1,uov (L3/B29). The core meaning of n-poc,- is "towards" — it means to go to someone/something, but does not include in its meaning the idea of entering it. The English sentence "They came to the town" does not itself indicate whether they entered it or stopped outside. Greek is able to resolve this ambiguity: if it uses eic for "to", then they entered the town; if it uses npoc then it implies they reached the town but does not in itself imply that they entered it. 
A4.32 Part of the extended meaning of Eig is "right up on to". Thus if the disciples came gpoc the mountain, they arrived at it; if they came eic the mountain, they went right up on to it. (See Selections B4 and B7.) Both Irpog and si; imply motion, but eic indicates that the motion continued right into the sphere indicated by the word which follows it. 
A4.33 Sometimes the sense of Eic is "throughout", as in Selection B5, ei; ariv rfiv FaAlAalav, "throughout the whole of Galilee". 

188 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
A4.34 An extended meaning of Eig is "for, with a view to". Thus L5/B11, eig doEctv apapzicov, "for the forgiveness of sins". 
A4.35 There is an exactly parallel distinction between kIC and (bro. & indicates the source or origin out of which something has come. It was inside, and now it has come from there. Thus L3/B13, "Did the baptism of John arise out of heaven or out of men?" (k of)pavoii TY devOpoilrow;)— this is a question about its origin or source. Similarly in L2/B5. 
A4.36 An extended meaning of eK is that something started right at the point mentioned. Thus L3/B7, E apxlic, "right at the beginning, or at any point after that". 
A4.37 In contrast, ago can be used of being distant from something without implying having come from that something or not. Thus in L3B18 the disciples in the boat were not far durb Tfig yfig, "from the land". Had they come from that shore or not? The wording does not indicate. Again in L3/B14 Jesus tells a man that he is not far dare 2 lig Pao-IA.Eiag, "from the kingdom". It is obvious that this does not mean that he had been in the kingdom and had left it; on the contrary, he was coming close to the kingdom, but he was still some distance dura it. A4.38 Another extended meaning of kiC is to indicate the connection of someone with a group. Thus L5/B10, ko-re 26V VOParCOV 2o5v kycov, "you are out of my sheep", that is, "you are part of my sheep, you belong to my flock". It does NOT mean "you are out of my sheep" in the sense "you have left my flock". This meaning of "belonging to" or "being a member of" a group is a very common meaning of eic. 
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<div id="A5" class="Lesson">
A5. LESSON FIVE 
A5.1 GRAMMAR AND VOCABULARY 
A5.10 The goal of this Lesson is to understand how the Third Declension works. It may be helpful for some people if this goal is broken down into a series of small steps, which indicate how to go about achieving it in stages. 
A5.11 First of all, learn ἰχθύς, because it is the basic Third Declension pattern paradigm. It has a long vowel stem (the upsilon is long, as in νῦν, pronounced as in the keyword "truth", #1.52). Note that the endings are added straight to the stem without any modifications. 
A5.12 In contrast, whenever endings are added to short vowel or consonant stems, linguistic modifications will occur. Most of these modifications are predictable, and are explained by the Rules (#5.31—#5.38). The second thing to do, then, is to learn crap, and to compare its paradigm with that of ixOt5g. Be sure that you understand the differences: adif:4 takes the consonant-stem ending -a- for the accusative singular (#5.30), and combines the last phoneme of its stem, -1C, with a following sigma into in accordance with the Amalgamation Rule (#5.33). Otherwise its paradigm is identical with that of izaog. 
A5.13 Thirdly, compare the other vowel stem paradigms (#5.20) with izafig and note how they agree with and vary from it. Some explanation of these variations will be given at a later stage; for now, seek to cultivate "recognition memory" of the forms of the vowel stem paradigms by the comparison and contrast with ixffac. 
A5.14 Fourthly, note the other Linguistic Modifications Rules one at a time (#5.34—#5.38), and observe how these Rules account for the other regular paradigms given in #5.30 and #5.44. If you understand these six Rules, you will understand what is happening in the forms of the vast majority of Third Declension words. This is an understanding well worth gaining. 

APPENDIX A: A STUDENT'S GUIDE TO THE USE OF THIS BOOK 189 
A5.15 Next, compare how the "slightly irregular" consonant stem paradigms of the "family group" 4) vary from the regular, and note the explanations of these variations (#5.41—#5.44). 
A5.16 Then note the similarities and differences of the neuter paradigm (Rolla with its ---1Lculine/feminine equivalent, raic, D3.8 (#5.5). 
A5.17 Finally, observe how adjectives use the paradigms of the three Declensions (#5.7—#5.8). Note particularly 7t-ok6c; and Reyac (#5.85), which change their masculine/neuter from Third to Second Declension after the first two case forms; and Er; (#5.86) — students often confuse :he masculine and neuter forms with prepositions because of not noting the rough breathing, and sometimes they totally fail to recognize Ilia as the corresponding feminine flexion form when they encounter it. Be sure, also, that you are able to identify the compound forms of 6; ofkkic and 77 &li 
A5.18 The most important of the Third Declension noun paradigms have been set out in Lesson Five. For all the others, including full paradigms for adjectives, see Appendix D. 
A5.2 EXERCISE: The answer for #5.39: S N vv A vOicra G vvIcrog D vv KT/ P N V1j1C2Ec A vijicrac G vu icro5v D vt4i (v) 
A5.3 ITERATED PREPOSITION 
A5.31 It is quite common to find that some Greek authors will use the same preposition in a compound verb and governing a noun in a related prepositional phrase. For example, in L5/B6, EA,OE a (throf), and again in kfiA,19Ev afnofi. 
A5.32 This is a stylistic feature, referred to as the iterated preposition, and does not indicate emphasis upon the preposition. In translating, you can choose a word which captures both prepositions; e.g., in the above example, "depart out of him". Frequently it is sufficient to translate just one of the iterated prepositions. 
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A6. LESSON SIX 
A6.1 POINTS TO NOTE 
A6.11 NOTE CAREFULLY how the presence of the morph -pev- in Slot 8, the Specifier Slot, indicates that the form is a middle participle (#6.35); but that a middle future participle form will be switched to passive by the insertion of the passive morph -en- in Slot 5. Thus: kvaopEvoc is the middle future participle (#6.33), and AvOricroiuevoc is the passive future participle (#6.50). The slot is important: -,tiev in Slot 9, the final slot, is the pronoun "we". NOTE ALSO that the aorist passive participle has a completely different flexion from the aorist middle participle (#6.29, #6.50). 
A6.12 NOTE CAREFULLY that Greek has no passive flexions for the durative and perfective aspects and can use the present and perfect middle forms with passive meaning (#6.37, #6.50). Because of this, whenever you come across a present or perfect middle form, examine the context carefully to assess whether the author's intended meaning is the middle or the passive voice. 

190 LEARN TO READ THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT 
A6.13 NOTE CAREFULLY that only the future and aorist tense systems take the passive morph -9e/On-. In itself, this morph indicates "aorist passive" unless it is followed by the future morph which in its turn must always be followed by the neutral morph (#4.22, #4.74). The presence of these three morphs together — passive, future, and neutral morphs — indicates that the form is future passive. 
A6.14 THE REFLEXIVE PRONOUN: Do not overlook the Reflexive Pronoun given at the end of Lesson Six (set out in full in Appendix D, #D6.8). The 1st person singular means "myself", the 2nd person singular "yourself", the 3rd person singular "himself/herself/itself" (depending upon gender). Note that the one plural flexion is used for first, second, and third person, and means "ourselves/yourselves/themselves" — the reflexive pronoun reflects the subject of the verb, and thus the person of the verb will indicate which person is meant for the pronoun. 
A6.2 THE NINE MORPH SLOTS OF THE VERB 
A6.21 Progressively, we have now been introduced to all nine morph slots of the verb, that is, positions in a verb framework where a unit of meaning can be placed. The verb's lexal is the core of the verb, carrying the word's lexical or dictionary meaning. There are three types of prefix which can be placed before it, and five kinds of suffix which can be added after it. These nine morph slots of the verb can be likened to switches each of which "switches" the meaning of the verb to a particular alternative (see #A3.37). 
A6.22 In a compound verb, four slots are always filled, that is, always contain a morph, each of which will be one of a range of alternatives (with different meanings) that can occur in that slot. Each of these four slots is thus like a multiposition selection switch — it selects for that slot a particular meaning out of the range of alternatives available. These four slots are Preposition, Lexal, Aspect, and Ending, and they thus provide the basic framework for the structure of every verb form (so that a zero morph in one of these four slots is significant). They are represented in the diagram that follows as circular switches. 
A6.23 In between these four framework slots are five other slots, all of which can be likened to on/off switches. They are represented in the diagram as rectangular switches. Four of the five are simple on/off switches — for these slots there is no range of alternative morphemes. Rather, there is only one morpheme (or unit of meaning) which can occur in a given slot, though a morpheme can have different allomorphs or alternative morphs — that is, it can have different forms, with identical meaning. (For example: the future morph, which is -e- after liquids and -6- otherwise.) If this morpheme is present in its slot it switches the verb to have that particular meaning (that is, in the example just given, "future"). Thus these are all optional slots — slots which may contain a morph, or may not. 
A6.24 The fifth optional slot, Slot 8, is also an on/off switch, but if it is "on" — that is, if it is filled by a morph — it can have in it any one of six different possible morphemes, and the verb will then be "switched" to the meaning given by that particular morpheme. Only one of these six morphemes can occur in any given verb form (which is why it is only one slot, not six); or Slot 8 may be "off", and have no morpheme in it at all. 
A6.25 The English meaning can frequently be "read off" for a Greek verb form by giving each morph its English equivalent and then reading the morphs from right to left. Examples:
e — v — 017 — aav eIC - ;71111 - 817 - a - E - tai w — run — Ica --ed loosen- were they out sought be will it -t kep- have you 

A6.3 THE GREEK VERB MORPH SLOT DIAGRAM 
The Greek verb has nine morph slots, which can be viewed as being a mixture of on/off and multi-position switches. 

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PREPOSITION 20-position switch for: No preposition (simplex) 18 prepositions Special prefix (#E4.14)

OFF ON

i1f1 T r:i "mi j I J

PAST REDUP- LEXAL TIME LICATION
On/Off On/Off The lexal will be one of the one thousand that occur in the New Testament.


OFF -1
ON
PASSIVE FUTURE VOICE TIME
On/Off On/Off
o-

41E ASPECT
3-position switch
(Absent in Third Conjugation flexions.)

OFF ON'
cs) 0)
2
4
5
6
SPECIFIER
On/Off switch — but when it is on, it will specify one or other of six pieces of information: 1. pluperfect active 2. perfect active participle 3. other active participle 4. middle participle 5. middle imperative/ infinitive 6. optative mode

—4 to
N 00\ ENDING
3-position switch
When switched to one of these three positions, the verb will then take one of the range of endings for that position

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On/Off switch — but when it is on, it will specify one or other of six pieces of information: 1. pluperfect active 2. perfect active participle 3. other active participle 4. middle participle 5. middle imperative/ infinitive 6. optative mode

—4 to
N 00\ ENDING
3-position switch
When switched to one of these three positions, the verb will then take one of the range of endings for that position

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